cargo: update dependencies

Last of the functions that need to be ported over to strided-ndarray.

.clang-format

@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+BasedOnStyle: LLVM
+
+Language: Cpp
+Standard: Cpp11
+
+AccessModifierOffset: -1
+AlignEscapedNewlines: Left
+AlwaysBreakAfterReturnType: None
+AlwaysBreakTemplateDeclarations: Yes
+AllowAllParametersOfDeclarationOnNextLine: false
+AllowShortFunctionsOnASingleLine: Inline
+BinPackParameters: false
+BreakBeforeBinaryOperators: NonAssignment
+BreakBeforeTernaryOperators: true
+BreakConstructorInitializers: AfterColon
+BreakInheritanceList: AfterColon
+ColumnLimit: 120
+ConstructorInitializerAllOnOneLineOrOnePerLine: true
+ContinuationIndentWidth: 4
+DerivePointerAlignment: false
+IndentCaseLabels: true
+IndentPPDirectives: None
+IndentWidth: 4
+MaxEmptyLinesToKeep: 1
+PointerAlignment: Left
+ReflowComments: true
+SortIncludes: false
+SortUsingDeclarations: true
+SpaceAfterTemplateKeyword: false
+SpacesBeforeTrailingComments: 2
+TabWidth: 4
+UseTab: Never

.clippy.toml

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+doc-valid-idents = ["CPython", "NumPy", ".."]

.gitignore

@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
 __pycache__
 /target
+/nac3standalone/demo/linalg/target
 nix/windows/msys2

.pre-commit-config.yaml

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+# See https://pre-commit.com for more information
+# See https://pre-commit.com/hooks.html for more hooks
+
+default_stages: [pre-commit]
+
+repos:
+  - repo: local
+    hooks:
+      - id: nac3-cargo-fmt
+        name: nac3 cargo format
+        entry: nix
+        language: system
+        types: [file, rust]
+        pass_filenames: false
+        description: Runs cargo fmt on the codebase.
+        args: [develop, -c, cargo, fmt, --all]
+      - id: nac3-cargo-clippy
+        name: nac3 cargo clippy
+        entry: nix
+        language: system
+        types: [file, rust]
+        pass_filenames: false
+        description: Runs cargo clippy on the codebase.
+        args: [develop, -c, cargo, clippy, --tests]

Cargo.toml

@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ members = [
   "nac3ast",
   "nac3parser",
   "nac3core",
+  "nac3core/nac3core_derive",
   "nac3standalone",
   "nac3artiq",
   "runkernel",

README.md

@@ -51,3 +51,12 @@ Use ``nix develop`` in this repository to enter a development shell.
 If you are using a different shell than bash you can use e.g. ``nix develop --command fish``.
 
 Build NAC3 with ``cargo build --release``. See the demonstrations in ``nac3artiq`` and ``nac3standalone``.
+
+### Pre-Commit Hooks
+
+You are strongly recommended to use the provided pre-commit hooks to automatically reformat files and check for non-optimal Rust practices using Clippy. Run `pre-commit install` to install the hook and `pre-commit` will automatically run `cargo fmt` and `cargo clippy` for you.
+
+Several things to note:
+
+- If `cargo fmt` or `cargo clippy` returns an error, the pre-commit hook will fail. You should fix all errors before trying to commit again.
+- If `cargo fmt` reformats some files, the pre-commit hook will also fail. You should review the changes and, if satisfied, try to commit again.

flake.lock

@@ -2,16 +2,16 @@
   "nodes": {
     "nixpkgs": {
       "locked": {
-        "lastModified": 1701389149,
+        "lastModified": 1733940404,
-        "narHash": "sha256-rU1suTIEd5DGCaAXKW6yHoCfR1mnYjOXQFOaH7M23js=",
+        "narHash": "sha256-Pj39hSoUA86ZePPF/UXiYHHM7hMIkios8TYG29kQT4g=",
         "owner": "NixOS",
         "repo": "nixpkgs",
-        "rev": "5de0b32be6e85dc1a9404c75131316e4ffbc634c",
+        "rev": "5d67ea6b4b63378b9c13be21e2ec9d1afc921713",
         "type": "github"
       },
       "original": {
         "owner": "NixOS",
-        "ref": "nixos-23.11",
+        "ref": "nixos-unstable",
         "repo": "nixpkgs",
         "type": "github"
       }

flake.nix

@@ -1,11 +1,12 @@
 {
   description = "The third-generation ARTIQ compiler";
 
-  inputs.nixpkgs.url = github:NixOS/nixpkgs/nixos-23.11;
+  inputs.nixpkgs.url = github:NixOS/nixpkgs/nixos-unstable;
 
   outputs = { self, nixpkgs }:
     let
       pkgs = import nixpkgs { system = "x86_64-linux"; };
+      pkgs32 = import nixpkgs { system = "i686-linux"; };
     in rec {
       packages.x86_64-linux = rec {
         llvm-nac3 = pkgs.callPackage ./nix/llvm {};
@@ -15,6 +16,22 @@
           ln -s ${pkgs.llvmPackages_14.clang-unwrapped}/bin/clang $out/bin/clang-irrt
           ln -s ${pkgs.llvmPackages_14.llvm.out}/bin/llvm-as $out/bin/llvm-as-irrt
           '';
+        demo-linalg-stub = pkgs.rustPlatform.buildRustPackage {
+          name = "demo-linalg-stub";
+          src = ./nac3standalone/demo/linalg;
+          cargoLock = {
+            lockFile = ./nac3standalone/demo/linalg/Cargo.lock;
+          };
+          doCheck = false;
+        };
+        demo-linalg-stub32 = pkgs32.rustPlatform.buildRustPackage {
+          name = "demo-linalg-stub32";
+          src = ./nac3standalone/demo/linalg;
+          cargoLock = {
+            lockFile = ./nac3standalone/demo/linalg/Cargo.lock;
+          };
+          doCheck = false;
+        };
         nac3artiq = pkgs.python3Packages.toPythonModule (
           pkgs.rustPlatform.buildRustPackage rec {
             name = "nac3artiq";
@@ -24,15 +41,19 @@
               lockFile = ./Cargo.lock;
             };
             passthru.cargoLock = cargoLock;
-            nativeBuildInputs = [ pkgs.python3 pkgs.llvmPackages_14.clang llvm-tools-irrt pkgs.llvmPackages_14.llvm.out llvm-nac3 ];
+            nativeBuildInputs = [ pkgs.python3 (pkgs.wrapClangMulti pkgs.llvmPackages_14.clang) llvm-tools-irrt pkgs.llvmPackages_14.llvm.out llvm-nac3 ];
             buildInputs = [ pkgs.python3 llvm-nac3 ];
             checkInputs = [ (pkgs.python3.withPackages(ps: [ ps.numpy ps.scipy ])) ];
             checkPhase =
               ''
-              echo "Running Cargo tests..."
+              echo "Checking nac3standalone demos..."
               pushd nac3standalone/demo
               patchShebangs .
+              export DEMO_LINALG_STUB=${demo-linalg-stub}/lib/liblinalg.a
+              export DEMO_LINALG_STUB32=${demo-linalg-stub32}/lib/liblinalg.a
+              ./check_demos.sh -i686
               popd
+              echo "Running Cargo tests..."
               cargoCheckHook
               '';
             installPhase =
@@ -86,18 +107,18 @@
             (pkgs.fetchFromGitHub {
               owner = "m-labs";
               repo = "sipyco";
-              rev = "939f84f9b5eef7efbf7423c735d1834783b6140e";
+              rev = "094a6cd63ffa980ef63698920170e50dc9ba77fd";
-              sha256 = "sha256-15Nun4EY35j+6SPZkjzZtyH/ncxLS60KuGJjFh5kSTc=";
+              sha256 = "sha256-PPnAyDedUQ7Og/Cby9x5OT9wMkNGTP8GS53V6N/dk4w=";
             })
             (pkgs.fetchFromGitHub {
               owner = "m-labs";
               repo = "artiq";
-              rev = "8b4572f9cad34ac0c2b6f6bba9382e7b59b2f93b";
+              rev = "28c9de3e251daa89a8c9fd79d5ab64a3ec03bac6";
-              sha256 = "sha256-O/0sUSxxXU1AL9cmT9qdzCkzdOKREBNftz22/8ouQcc=";
+              sha256 = "sha256-vAvpbHc5B+1wtG8zqN7j9dQE1ON+i22v+uqA+tw6Gak=";
             })
           ];
           buildInputs = [
-            (python3-mimalloc.withPackages(ps: [ ps.numpy ps.scipy ps.jsonschema ps.lmdb nac3artiq-instrumented ]))
+            (python3-mimalloc.withPackages(ps: [ ps.numpy ps.scipy ps.jsonschema ps.lmdb ps.platformdirs nac3artiq-instrumented ]))
             pkgs.llvmPackages_14.llvm.out
           ];
           phases = [ "buildPhase" "installPhase" ];
@@ -147,7 +168,7 @@
         buildInputs = with pkgs; [
           # build dependencies
           packages.x86_64-linux.llvm-nac3
-          llvmPackages_14.clang  # demo
+          (pkgs.wrapClangMulti llvmPackages_14.clang) llvmPackages_14.llvm.out  # for running nac3standalone demos
           packages.x86_64-linux.llvm-tools-irrt
           cargo
           rustc
@@ -157,8 +178,14 @@
           # development tools
           cargo-insta
           clippy
+          pre-commit
           rustfmt
         ];
+        shellHook =
+          ''
+          export DEMO_LINALG_STUB=${packages.x86_64-linux.demo-linalg-stub}/lib/liblinalg.a
+          export DEMO_LINALG_STUB32=${packages.x86_64-linux.demo-linalg-stub32}/lib/liblinalg.a
+          '';
       };
       devShells.x86_64-linux.msys2 = pkgs.mkShell {
         name = "nac3-dev-shell-msys2";

nac3artiq/Cargo.toml

@@ -9,18 +9,13 @@ name = "nac3artiq"
 crate-type = ["cdylib"]
 
 [dependencies]
-itertools = "0.12"
+itertools = "0.13"
-pyo3 = { version = "0.20", features = ["extension-module"] }
+pyo3 = { version = "0.21", features = ["extension-module", "gil-refs"] }
 parking_lot = "0.12"
-tempfile = "3.8"
+tempfile = "3.13"
-nac3parser = { path = "../nac3parser" }
 nac3core = { path = "../nac3core" }
 nac3ld = { path = "../nac3ld" }
 
-[dependencies.inkwell]
-version = "0.2"
-default-features = false
-features = ["llvm14-0", "target-x86", "target-arm", "target-riscv", "no-libffi-linking"]
-
 [features]
 init-llvm-profile = []
+no-escape-analysis = ["nac3core/no-escape-analysis"]

nac3artiq/demo/embedding_map.py

@@ -7,33 +7,6 @@ class EmbeddingMap:
         self.function_map = {}
         self.attributes_writeback = []
 
-        # preallocate exception names
-        self.preallocate_runtime_exception_names(["RuntimeError",
-                                          "RTIOUnderflow",
-                                          "RTIOOverflow",
-                                          "RTIODestinationUnreachable",
-                                          "DMAError",
-                                          "I2CError",
-                                          "CacheError",
-                                          "SPIError",
-                                          "0:ZeroDivisionError",
-                                          "0:IndexError",
-                                          "0:ValueError",
-                                          "0:RuntimeError",
-                                          "0:AssertionError",
-                                          "0:KeyError",
-                                          "0:NotImplementedError",
-                                          "0:OverflowError",
-                                          "0:IOError",
-                                          "0:UnwrapNoneError"])
-
-    def preallocate_runtime_exception_names(self, names):
-        for i, name in enumerate(names):
-            if ":" not in name:
-                name = "0:artiq.coredevice.exceptions." + name
-            exn_id = self.store_str(name)
-            assert exn_id == i
-
     def store_function(self, key, fun):
         self.function_map[key] = fun
         return key

nac3artiq/demo/list_cmp.py

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+from min_artiq import *
+from numpy import int32
+
+
+@nac3
+class EmptyList:
+    core: KernelInvariant[Core]
+
+    def __init__(self):
+        self.core = Core()
+
+    @rpc
+    def get_empty(self) -> list[int32]:
+        return []
+
+    @kernel
+    def run(self):
+        a: list[int32] = self.get_empty()
+        if a != []:
+            raise ValueError
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    EmptyList().run()

nac3artiq/demo/min_artiq.py

@@ -112,10 +112,15 @@ def extern(function):
     register_function(function)
     return function
 
-def rpc(function):
+
-    """Decorates a function declaration defined by the core device runtime."""
+def rpc(arg=None, flags={}):
-    register_function(function)
+    """Decorates a function or method to be executed on the host interpreter."""
-    return function
+    if arg is None:
+        def inner_decorator(function):
+            return rpc(function, flags)
+        return inner_decorator
+    register_function(arg)
+    return arg
 
 def kernel(function_or_method):
     """Decorates a function or method to be executed on the core device."""
@@ -201,7 +206,7 @@ class Core:
         embedding = EmbeddingMap()
 
         if allow_registration:
-            compiler.analyze(registered_functions, registered_classes)
+            compiler.analyze(registered_functions, registered_classes, set())
             allow_registration = False
 
         if hasattr(method, "__self__"):

nac3artiq/demo/str_abi.py

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+from min_artiq import *
+from numpy import ndarray, zeros as np_zeros
+
+
+@nac3
+class StrFail:
+    core: KernelInvariant[Core]
+
+    def __init__(self):
+        self.core = Core()
+
+    @kernel
+    def hello(self, arg: str):
+        pass
+
+    @kernel
+    def consume_ndarray(self, arg: ndarray[str, 1]):
+        pass
+
+    def run(self):
+        self.hello("world")
+        self.consume_ndarray(np_zeros([10], dtype=str))
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    StrFail().run()

nac3artiq/demo/string_attribute_issue337.py

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+from min_artiq import *
+from numpy import int32
+
+
+@nac3
+class Demo:
+    core: KernelInvariant[Core]
+    attr1: KernelInvariant[str]
+    attr2: KernelInvariant[int32]
+
+
+    def __init__(self):
+        self.core = Core()
+        self.attr2 = 32
+        self.attr1 = "SAMPLE"
+
+    @kernel
+    def run(self):
+        print_int32(self.attr2)
+        self.attr1
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    Demo().run()

nac3artiq/demo/support_class_attr_issue102.py

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+from min_artiq import *
+from numpy import int32
+
+
+@nac3
+class Demo:
+    attr1: KernelInvariant[int32] = 2
+    attr2: int32 = 4
+    attr3: Kernel[int32]
+
+    @kernel
+    def __init__(self):
+        self.attr3 = 8
+
+
+@nac3
+class NAC3Devices:
+    core: KernelInvariant[Core]
+    attr4: KernelInvariant[int32] = 16
+    
+    def __init__(self):
+        self.core = Core()
+
+    @kernel
+    def run(self):
+        Demo.attr1  # Supported
+        # Demo.attr2  # Field not accessible on Kernel
+        # Demo.attr3  # Only attributes can be accessed in this way
+        # Demo.attr1 = 2  # Attributes are immutable
+
+        self.attr4  # Attributes can be accessed within class
+
+        obj = Demo()
+        obj.attr1  # Attributes can be accessed by class objects
+
+        NAC3Devices.attr4  # Attributes accessible for classes without __init__
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    NAC3Devices().run()

nac3artiq/src/lib.rs

@@ -1,60 +1,74 @@
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+#![deny(future_incompatible, let_underscore, nonstandard_style, clippy::all)]
-use std::fs;
+#![warn(clippy::pedantic)]
-use std::io::Write;
+#![allow(
-use std::process::Command;
+    unsafe_op_in_unsafe_fn,
-use std::rc::Rc;
+    clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
-use std::sync::Arc;
+    clippy::cast_sign_loss,
+    clippy::enum_glob_use,
+    clippy::similar_names,
+    clippy::too_many_lines,
+    clippy::wildcard_imports
+)]
 
-use inkwell::{
+use std::{
-    memory_buffer::MemoryBuffer,
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-    module::{Linkage, Module},
+    fs,
-    passes::PassBuilderOptions,
+    io::Write,
-    support::is_multithreaded,
+    process::Command,
-    targets::*,
+    rc::Rc,
-    OptimizationLevel,
+    sync::Arc,
 };
+
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use nac3core::codegen::{CodeGenLLVMOptions, CodeGenTargetMachineOptions, gen_func_impl};
-use nac3core::toplevel::builtins::get_exn_constructor;
-use nac3core::typecheck::typedef::{TypeEnum, Unifier};
-use nac3parser::{
-    ast::{ExprKind, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef},
-    parser::parse_program,
-};
-use pyo3::prelude::*;
-use pyo3::{exceptions, types::PyBytes, types::PyDict, types::PySet};
-use pyo3::create_exception;
-
 use parking_lot::{Mutex, RwLock};
-
+use pyo3::{
-use nac3core::{
+    create_exception, exceptions,
-    codegen::irrt::load_irrt,
+    prelude::*,
-    codegen::{concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore, CodeGenTask, WithCall, WorkerRegistry},
+    types::{PyBytes, PyDict, PyNone, PySet},
-    symbol_resolver::SymbolResolver,
-    toplevel::{
-        composer::{ComposerConfig, TopLevelComposer},
-        DefinitionId, GenCall, TopLevelDef,
-    },
-    typecheck::typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg},
-    typecheck::{type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore, typedef::Type},
 };
-
-use nac3ld::Linker;
-
 use tempfile::{self, TempDir};
 
-use crate::codegen::attributes_writeback;
+use nac3core::{
-use crate::{
+    codegen::{
-    codegen::{rpc_codegen_callback, ArtiqCodeGenerator},
+        concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore, gen_func_impl, irrt::load_irrt, CodeGenLLVMOptions,
-    symbol_resolver::{InnerResolver, PythonHelper, Resolver, DeferredEvaluationStore},
+        CodeGenTargetMachineOptions, CodeGenTask, CodeGenerator, WithCall, WorkerRegistry,
+    },
+    inkwell::{
+        context::Context,
+        memory_buffer::MemoryBuffer,
+        module::{FlagBehavior, Linkage, Module},
+        passes::PassBuilderOptions,
+        support::is_multithreaded,
+        targets::*,
+        OptimizationLevel,
+    },
+    nac3parser::{
+        ast::{Constant, ExprKind, Located, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef},
+        parser::parse_program,
+    },
+    symbol_resolver::SymbolResolver,
+    toplevel::{
+        builtins::get_exn_constructor,
+        composer::{BuiltinFuncCreator, BuiltinFuncSpec, ComposerConfig, TopLevelComposer},
+        DefinitionId, GenCall, TopLevelDef,
+    },
+    typecheck::{
+        type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore,
+        typedef::{into_var_map, FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
+    },
 };
+use nac3ld::Linker;
+
+use codegen::{
+    attributes_writeback, gen_core_log, gen_rtio_log, rpc_codegen_callback, ArtiqCodeGenerator,
+};
+use symbol_resolver::{DeferredEvaluationStore, InnerResolver, PythonHelper, Resolver};
+use timeline::TimeFns;
 
 mod codegen;
 mod symbol_resolver;
 mod timeline;
 
-use timeline::TimeFns;
-
 #[derive(PartialEq, Clone, Copy)]
 enum Isa {
     Host,
@@ -63,6 +77,17 @@ enum Isa {
     CortexA9,
 }
 
+impl Isa {
+    /// Returns the number of bits in `size_t` for the [`Isa`].
+    fn get_size_type(self) -> u32 {
+        if self == Isa::Host {
+            64u32
+        } else {
+            32u32
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct PrimitivePythonId {
     int: u64,
@@ -73,7 +98,11 @@ pub struct PrimitivePythonId {
     float: u64,
     float64: u64,
     bool: u64,
+    np_bool_: u64,
+    string: u64,
+    np_str_: u64,
     list: u64,
+    ndarray: u64,
     tuple: u64,
     typevar: u64,
     const_generic_marker: u64,
@@ -93,7 +122,7 @@ struct Nac3 {
     isa: Isa,
     time_fns: &'static (dyn TimeFns + Sync),
     primitive: PrimitiveStore,
-    builtins: Vec<(StrRef, FunSignature, Arc<GenCall>)>,
+    builtins: Vec<BuiltinFuncSpec>,
     pyid_to_def: Arc<RwLock<HashMap<u64, DefinitionId>>>,
     primitive_ids: PrimitivePythonId,
     working_directory: TempDir,
@@ -113,22 +142,38 @@ impl Nac3 {
         module: &PyObject,
         registered_class_ids: &HashSet<u64>,
     ) -> PyResult<()> {
-        let (module_name, source_file) = Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<(String, String)> {
+        let (module_name, source_file, source) =
-            let module: &PyAny = module.extract(py)?;
+            Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<(String, String, String)> {
-            Ok((module.getattr("__name__")?.extract()?, module.getattr("__file__")?.extract()?))
+                let module: &PyAny = module.extract(py)?;
-        })?;
+                let source_file = module.getattr("__file__");
+                let (source_file, source) = if let Ok(source_file) = source_file {
+                    let source_file = source_file.extract()?;
+                    (
+                        source_file,
+                        fs::read_to_string(source_file).map_err(|e| {
+                            exceptions::PyIOError::new_err(format!(
+                                "failed to read input file: {e}"
+                            ))
+                        })?,
+                    )
+                } else {
+                    // kernels submitted by content have no file
+                    // but still can provide source by StringLoader
+                    let get_src_fn = module
+                        .getattr("__loader__")?
+                        .extract::<PyObject>()?
+                        .getattr(py, "get_source")?;
+                    ("<expcontent>", get_src_fn.call1(py, (PyNone::get(py),))?.extract(py)?)
+                };
+                Ok((module.getattr("__name__")?.extract()?, source_file.to_string(), source))
+            })?;
 
-        let source = fs::read_to_string(&source_file).map_err(|e| {
-            exceptions::PyIOError::new_err(format!("failed to read input file: {e}"))
-        })?;
         let parser_result = parse_program(&source, source_file.into())
             .map_err(|e| exceptions::PySyntaxError::new_err(format!("parse error: {e}")))?;
 
         for mut stmt in parser_result {
             let include = match stmt.node {
-                StmtKind::ClassDef {
+                StmtKind::ClassDef { ref decorator_list, ref mut body, ref mut bases, .. } => {
-                    ref decorator_list, ref mut body, ref mut bases, ..
-                } => {
                     let nac3_class = decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
                         if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = decorator.node {
                             id.to_string() == "nac3"
@@ -148,7 +193,8 @@ impl Nac3 {
                                     if *id == "Exception".into() {
                                         Ok(true)
                                     } else {
-                                        let base_obj = module.getattr(py, id.to_string().as_str())?;
+                                        let base_obj =
+                                            module.getattr(py, id.to_string().as_str())?;
                                         let base_id = id_fn.call1((base_obj,))?.extract()?;
                                         Ok(registered_class_ids.contains(&base_id))
                                     }
@@ -161,10 +207,8 @@ impl Nac3 {
                     body.retain(|stmt| {
                         if let StmtKind::FunctionDef { ref decorator_list, .. } = stmt.node {
                             decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
-                                if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = decorator.node {
+                                if let Some(id) = decorator_id_string(decorator) {
-                                    id.to_string() == "kernel"
+                                    id == "kernel" || id == "portable" || id == "rpc"
-                                        || id.to_string() == "portable"
-                                        || id.to_string() == "rpc"
                                 } else {
                                     false
                                 }
@@ -177,9 +221,8 @@ impl Nac3 {
                 }
                 StmtKind::FunctionDef { ref decorator_list, .. } => {
                     decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
-                        if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = decorator.node {
+                        if let Some(id) = decorator_id_string(decorator) {
-                            let id = id.to_string();
+                            id == "extern" || id == "kernel" || id == "portable" || id == "rpc"
-                            id == "extern" || id == "portable" || id == "kernel" || id == "rpc"
                         } else {
                             false
                         }
@@ -232,7 +275,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
                     arg_names.len(),
                 ));
             }
-            for (i, FuncArg { ty, default_value, name }) in args.iter().enumerate() {
+            for (i, FuncArg { ty, default_value, name, .. }) in args.iter().enumerate() {
                 let in_name = match arg_names.get(i) {
                     Some(n) => n,
                     None if default_value.is_none() => {
@@ -268,6 +311,64 @@ impl Nac3 {
         None
     }
 
+    /// Returns a [`Vec`] of builtins that needs to be initialized during method compilation time.
+    fn get_lateinit_builtins() -> Vec<Box<BuiltinFuncCreator>> {
+        vec![
+            Box::new(|primitives, unifier| {
+                let arg_ty = unifier.get_fresh_var(Some("T".into()), None);
+
+                (
+                    "core_log".into(),
+                    FunSignature {
+                        args: vec![FuncArg {
+                            name: "arg".into(),
+                            ty: arg_ty.ty,
+                            default_value: None,
+                            is_vararg: false,
+                        }],
+                        ret: primitives.none,
+                        vars: into_var_map([arg_ty]),
+                    },
+                    Arc::new(GenCall::new(Box::new(move |ctx, obj, fun, args, generator| {
+                        gen_core_log(ctx, &obj, fun, &args, generator)?;
+
+                        Ok(None)
+                    }))),
+                )
+            }),
+            Box::new(|primitives, unifier| {
+                let arg_ty = unifier.get_fresh_var(Some("T".into()), None);
+
+                (
+                    "rtio_log".into(),
+                    FunSignature {
+                        args: vec![
+                            FuncArg {
+                                name: "channel".into(),
+                                ty: primitives.str,
+                                default_value: None,
+                                is_vararg: false,
+                            },
+                            FuncArg {
+                                name: "arg".into(),
+                                ty: arg_ty.ty,
+                                default_value: None,
+                                is_vararg: false,
+                            },
+                        ],
+                        ret: primitives.none,
+                        vars: into_var_map([arg_ty]),
+                    },
+                    Arc::new(GenCall::new(Box::new(move |ctx, obj, fun, args, generator| {
+                        gen_rtio_log(ctx, &obj, fun, &args, generator)?;
+
+                        Ok(None)
+                    }))),
+                )
+            }),
+        ]
+    }
+
     fn compile_method<T>(
         &self,
         obj: &PyAny,
@@ -277,9 +378,12 @@ impl Nac3 {
         py: Python,
         link_fn: &dyn Fn(&Module) -> PyResult<T>,
     ) -> PyResult<T> {
+        let size_t = self.isa.get_size_type();
         let (mut composer, mut builtins_def, mut builtins_ty) = TopLevelComposer::new(
             self.builtins.clone(),
+            Self::get_lateinit_builtins(),
             ComposerConfig { kernel_ann: Some("Kernel"), kernel_invariant_ann: "KernelInvariant" },
+            size_t,
         );
 
         let builtins = PyModule::import(py, "builtins")?;
@@ -327,8 +431,9 @@ impl Nac3 {
             let class_obj;
             if let StmtKind::ClassDef { name, .. } = &stmt.node {
                 let class = py_module.getattr(name.to_string().as_str()).unwrap();
-                if issubclass.call1((class, exn_class)).unwrap().extract().unwrap() &&
+                if issubclass.call1((class, exn_class)).unwrap().extract().unwrap()
-                    class.getattr("artiq_builtin").is_err() {
+                    && class.getattr("artiq_builtin").is_err()
+                {
                     class_obj = Some(class);
                 } else {
                     class_obj = None;
@@ -353,7 +458,6 @@ impl Nac3 {
                         pyid_to_type: pyid_to_type.clone(),
                         primitive_ids: self.primitive_ids.clone(),
                         global_value_ids: global_value_ids.clone(),
-                        class_names: Mutex::default(),
                         name_to_pyid: name_to_pyid.clone(),
                         module: module.clone(),
                         id_to_pyval: RwLock::default(),
@@ -374,19 +478,35 @@ impl Nac3 {
             let (name, def_id, ty) = composer
                 .register_top_level(stmt.clone(), Some(resolver.clone()), path, false)
                 .map_err(|e| {
-                    CompileError::new_err(format!(
+                    CompileError::new_err(format!("compilation failed\n----------\n{e}"))
-                        "compilation failed\n----------\n{e}"
-                    ))
                 })?;
             if let Some(class_obj) = class_obj {
-                self.exception_ids.write().insert(def_id.0, store_obj.call1(py, (class_obj, ))?.extract(py)?);
+                self.exception_ids
+                    .write()
+                    .insert(def_id.0, store_obj.call1(py, (class_obj,))?.extract(py)?);
             }
 
             match &stmt.node {
                 StmtKind::FunctionDef { decorator_list, .. } => {
-                    if decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| matches!(decorator.node, ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == "rpc".into())) {
+                    if decorator_list
-                        store_fun.call1(py, (def_id.0.into_py(py), module.getattr(py, name.to_string().as_str()).unwrap())).unwrap();
+                        .iter()
-                        rpc_ids.push((None, def_id));
+                        .any(|decorator| decorator_id_string(decorator) == Some("rpc".to_string()))
+                    {
+                        store_fun
+                            .call1(
+                                py,
+                                (
+                                    def_id.0.into_py(py),
+                                    module.getattr(py, name.to_string().as_str()).unwrap(),
+                                ),
+                            )
+                            .unwrap();
+                        let is_async = decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
+                            decorator_get_flags(decorator)
+                                .iter()
+                                .any(|constant| *constant == Constant::Str("async".into()))
+                        });
+                        rpc_ids.push((None, def_id, is_async));
                     }
                 }
                 StmtKind::ClassDef { name, body, .. } => {
@@ -394,19 +514,26 @@ impl Nac3 {
                     let class_obj = module.getattr(py, class_name.as_str()).unwrap();
                     for stmt in body {
                         if let StmtKind::FunctionDef { name, decorator_list, .. } = &stmt.node {
-                            if decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| matches!(decorator.node, ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == "rpc".into())) {
+                            if decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
+                                decorator_id_string(decorator) == Some("rpc".to_string())
+                            }) {
+                                let is_async = decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
+                                    decorator_get_flags(decorator)
+                                        .iter()
+                                        .any(|constant| *constant == Constant::Str("async".into()))
+                                });
                                 if name == &"__init__".into() {
                                     return Err(CompileError::new_err(format!(
                                         "compilation failed\n----------\nThe constructor of class {} should not be decorated with rpc decorator (at {})",
                                         class_name, stmt.location
                                     )));
                                 }
-                                rpc_ids.push((Some((class_obj.clone(), *name)), def_id));
+                                rpc_ids.push((Some((class_obj.clone(), *name)), def_id, is_async));
                             }
                         }
                     }
                 }
-                _ => ()
+                _ => (),
             }
 
             let id = *name_to_pyid.get(&name).unwrap();
@@ -445,28 +572,36 @@ impl Nac3 {
             pyid_to_type: pyid_to_type.clone(),
             primitive_ids: self.primitive_ids.clone(),
             global_value_ids: global_value_ids.clone(),
-            class_names: Mutex::default(),
             id_to_pyval: RwLock::default(),
             id_to_primitive: RwLock::default(),
             field_to_val: RwLock::default(),
             name_to_pyid,
             module: module.to_object(py),
-            helper,
+            helper: helper.clone(),
             string_store: self.string_store.clone(),
             exception_ids: self.exception_ids.clone(),
             deferred_eval_store: self.deferred_eval_store.clone(),
         });
-        let resolver = Arc::new(Resolver(inner_resolver.clone())) as Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>;
+        let resolver =
+            Arc::new(Resolver(inner_resolver.clone())) as Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>;
         let (_, def_id, _) = composer
             .register_top_level(synthesized.pop().unwrap(), Some(resolver.clone()), "", false)
             .unwrap();
 
+        // Process IRRT
+        let context = Context::create();
+        let irrt = load_irrt(&context, resolver.as_ref());
+
         let fun_signature =
-            FunSignature { args: vec![], ret: self.primitive.none, vars: HashMap::new() };
+            FunSignature { args: vec![], ret: self.primitive.none, vars: VarMap::new() };
         let mut store = ConcreteTypeStore::new();
         let mut cache = HashMap::new();
-        let signature =
+        let signature = store.from_signature(
-            store.from_signature(&mut composer.unifier, &self.primitive, &fun_signature, &mut cache);
+            &mut composer.unifier,
+            &self.primitive,
+            &fun_signature,
+            &mut cache,
+        );
         let signature = store.add_cty(signature);
 
         if let Err(e) = composer.start_analysis(true) {
@@ -485,24 +620,21 @@ impl Nac3 {
                     msg.unwrap_or(e.iter().sorted().join("\n----------\n"))
                 )))
             } else {
-                Err(CompileError::new_err(
+                Err(CompileError::new_err(format!(
-                    format!(
+                    "compilation failed\n----------\n{}",
-                        "compilation failed\n----------\n{}",
+                    e.iter().sorted().join("\n----------\n"),
-                        e.iter().sorted().join("\n----------\n"),
+                )))
-                    ),
+            };
-                ))
-            }
         }
         let top_level = Arc::new(composer.make_top_level_context());
 
         {
-            let rpc_codegen = rpc_codegen_callback();
             let defs = top_level.definitions.read();
-            for (class_data, id) in &rpc_ids {
+            for (class_data, id, is_async) in &rpc_ids {
                 let mut def = defs[id.0].write();
                 match &mut *def {
                     TopLevelDef::Function { codegen_callback, .. } => {
-                        *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen.clone());
+                        *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen_callback(*is_async));
                     }
                     TopLevelDef::Class { methods, .. } => {
                         let (class_def, method_name) = class_data.as_ref().unwrap();
@@ -513,19 +645,26 @@ impl Nac3 {
                             if let TopLevelDef::Function { codegen_callback, .. } =
                                 &mut *defs[id.0].write()
                             {
-                                *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen.clone());
+                                *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen_callback(*is_async));
                                 store_fun
                                     .call1(
                                         py,
                                         (
                                             id.0.into_py(py),
-                                            class_def.getattr(py, name.to_string().as_str()).unwrap(),
+                                            class_def
+                                                .getattr(py, name.to_string().as_str())
+                                                .unwrap(),
                                         ),
                                     )
                                     .unwrap();
                             }
                         }
                     }
+                    TopLevelDef::Variable { .. } => {
+                        return Err(CompileError::new_err(String::from(
+                            "Unsupported @rpc annotation on global variable",
+                        )))
+                    }
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -534,7 +673,8 @@ impl Nac3 {
             let defs = top_level.definitions.read();
             let mut definition = defs[def_id.0].write();
             let TopLevelDef::Function { instance_to_stmt, instance_to_symbol, .. } =
-                &mut *definition else {
+                &mut *definition
+            else {
                 unreachable!()
             };
 
@@ -545,29 +685,12 @@ impl Nac3 {
         let task = CodeGenTask {
             subst: Vec::default(),
             symbol_name: "__modinit__".to_string(),
-            body: instance.body,
-            signature,
-            resolver: resolver.clone(),
-            store,
-            unifier_index: instance.unifier_id,
-            calls: instance.calls,
-            id: 0,
-        };
-
-        let mut store = ConcreteTypeStore::new();
-        let mut cache = HashMap::new();
-        let signature =
-            store.from_signature(&mut composer.unifier, &self.primitive, &fun_signature, &mut cache);
-        let signature = store.add_cty(signature);
-        let attributes_writeback_task = CodeGenTask {
-            subst: Vec::default(),
-            symbol_name: "attributes_writeback".to_string(),
             body: Arc::new(Vec::default()),
             signature,
             resolver,
             store,
             unifier_index: instance.unifier_id,
-            calls: Arc::new(HashMap::default()),
+            calls: instance.calls,
             id: 0,
         };
 
@@ -580,7 +703,9 @@ impl Nac3 {
             let buffer = buffer.as_slice().into();
             membuffer.lock().push(buffer);
         })));
-        let size_t = if self.isa == Isa::Host { 64 } else { 32 };
+        let size_t = context
+            .ptr_sized_int_type(&self.get_llvm_target_machine().get_target_data(), None)
+            .get_bit_width();
         let num_threads = if is_multithreaded() { 4 } else { 1 };
         let thread_names: Vec<String> = (0..num_threads).map(|_| "main".to_string()).collect();
         let threads: Vec<_> = thread_names
@@ -589,49 +714,81 @@ impl Nac3 {
             .collect();
 
         let membuffer = membuffers.clone();
+        let mut has_return = false;
         py.allow_threads(|| {
-            let (registry, handles) = WorkerRegistry::create_workers(
+            let (registry, handles) =
-                threads,
+                WorkerRegistry::create_workers(threads, top_level.clone(), &self.llvm_options, &f);
-                top_level.clone(),
-                &self.llvm_options,
-                &f
-            );
-            registry.add_task(task);
-            registry.wait_tasks_complete(handles);
 
-            let mut generator = ArtiqCodeGenerator::new("attributes_writeback".to_string(), size_t, self.time_fns);
+            let mut generator = ArtiqCodeGenerator::new("main".to_string(), size_t, self.time_fns);
-            let context = inkwell::context::Context::create();
+            let context = Context::create();
-            let module = context.create_module("attributes_writeback");
+            let module = context.create_module("main");
+            let target_machine = self.llvm_options.create_target_machine().unwrap();
+            module.set_data_layout(&target_machine.get_target_data().get_data_layout());
+            module.set_triple(&target_machine.get_triple());
+            module.add_basic_value_flag(
+                "Debug Info Version",
+                FlagBehavior::Warning,
+                context.i32_type().const_int(3, false),
+            );
+            module.add_basic_value_flag(
+                "Dwarf Version",
+                FlagBehavior::Warning,
+                context.i32_type().const_int(4, false),
+            );
             let builder = context.create_builder();
-            let (_, module, _) = gen_func_impl(&context, &mut generator, &registry, builder, module,
+            let (_, module, _) = gen_func_impl(
-                attributes_writeback_task, |generator, ctx| {
+                &context,
-                    attributes_writeback(ctx, generator, inner_resolver.as_ref(), &host_attributes)
+                &mut generator,
-                }).unwrap();
+                &registry,
+                builder,
+                module,
+                task,
+                |generator, ctx| {
+                    assert_eq!(instance.body.len(), 1, "toplevel module should have 1 statement");
+                    let StmtKind::Expr { value: ref expr, .. } = instance.body[0].node else {
+                        unreachable!("toplevel statement must be an expression")
+                    };
+                    let ExprKind::Call { .. } = expr.node else {
+                        unreachable!("toplevel expression must be a function call")
+                    };
+
+                    let return_obj =
+                        generator.gen_expr(ctx, expr)?.map(|value| (expr.custom.unwrap(), value));
+                    has_return = return_obj.is_some();
+                    registry.wait_tasks_complete(handles);
+                    attributes_writeback(
+                        ctx,
+                        generator,
+                        inner_resolver.as_ref(),
+                        &host_attributes,
+                        return_obj,
+                    )
+                },
+            )
+            .unwrap();
             let buffer = module.write_bitcode_to_memory();
             let buffer = buffer.as_slice().into();
             membuffer.lock().push(buffer);
         });
 
-        let context = inkwell::context::Context::create();
+        embedding_map.setattr("expects_return", has_return).unwrap();
+
+        // Link all modules into `main`.
         let buffers = membuffers.lock();
         let main = context
-            .create_module_from_ir(MemoryBuffer::create_from_memory_range(&buffers[0], "main"))
+            .create_module_from_ir(MemoryBuffer::create_from_memory_range(
+                buffers.last().unwrap(),
+                "main",
+            ))
             .unwrap();
-        for buffer in buffers.iter().skip(1) {
+        for buffer in buffers.iter().rev().skip(1) {
             let other = context
                 .create_module_from_ir(MemoryBuffer::create_from_memory_range(buffer, "main"))
                 .unwrap();
 
-            main.link_in_module(other)
+            main.link_in_module(other).map_err(|err| CompileError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
-                .map_err(|err| CompileError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
         }
-        let builder = context.create_builder();
+        main.link_in_module(irrt).map_err(|err| CompileError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
-        let modinit_return = main.get_function("__modinit__").unwrap().get_last_basic_block().unwrap().get_terminator().unwrap();
-        builder.position_before(&modinit_return);
-        builder.build_call(main.get_function("attributes_writeback").unwrap(), &[], "attributes_writeback");
-
-        main.link_in_module(load_irrt(&context))
-            .map_err(|err| CompileError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
 
         let mut function_iter = main.get_first_function();
         while let Some(func) = function_iter {
@@ -642,10 +799,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
         }
 
         // Demote all global variables that will not be referenced in the kernel to private
-        let preserved_symbols: Vec<&'static [u8]> = vec![
+        let preserved_symbols: Vec<&'static [u8]> = vec![b"typeinfo", b"now"];
-            b"typeinfo",
-            b"now",
-        ];
         let mut global_option = main.get_first_global();
         while let Some(global) = global_option {
             if !preserved_symbols.contains(&(global.get_name().to_bytes())) {
@@ -654,7 +808,9 @@ impl Nac3 {
             global_option = global.get_next_global();
         }
 
-        let target_machine = self.llvm_options.target
+        let target_machine = self
+            .llvm_options
+            .target
             .create_target_machine(self.llvm_options.opt_level)
             .expect("couldn't create target machine");
 
@@ -666,6 +822,20 @@ impl Nac3 {
             panic!("Failed to run optimization for module `main`: {}", err.to_string());
         }
 
+        Python::with_gil(|py| {
+            let string_store = self.string_store.read();
+            let mut string_store_vec = string_store.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            string_store_vec.sort_by(|(_s1, key1), (_s2, key2)| key1.cmp(key2));
+            for (s, key) in string_store_vec {
+                let embed_key: i32 = helper.store_str.call1(py, (s,)).unwrap().extract(py).unwrap();
+                assert_eq!(
+                    embed_key, *key,
+                    "string {s} is out of sync between embedding map (key={embed_key}) and \
+                    the internal string store (key={key})"
+                );
+            }
+        });
+
         link_fn(&main)
     }
 
@@ -718,10 +888,42 @@ impl Nac3 {
     }
 }
 
-fn link_with_lld(
+/// Retrieves the Name.id from a decorator, supports decorators with arguments.
-    elf_filename: String,
+fn decorator_id_string(decorator: &Located<ExprKind>) -> Option<String> {
-    obj_filename: String,
+    if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = decorator.node {
-) -> PyResult<()>{
+        // Bare decorator
+        return Some(id.to_string());
+    } else if let ExprKind::Call { func, .. } = &decorator.node {
+        // Decorators that are calls (e.g. "@rpc()") have Call for the node,
+        // need to extract the id from within.
+        if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = func.node {
+            return Some(id.to_string());
+        }
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+/// Retrieves flags from a decorator, if any.
+fn decorator_get_flags(decorator: &Located<ExprKind>) -> Vec<Constant> {
+    let mut flags = vec![];
+    if let ExprKind::Call { keywords, .. } = &decorator.node {
+        for keyword in keywords {
+            if keyword.node.arg != Some("flags".into()) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if let ExprKind::Set { elts } = &keyword.node.value.node {
+                for elt in elts {
+                    if let ExprKind::Constant { value, .. } = &elt.node {
+                        flags.push(value.clone());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    flags
+}
+
+fn link_with_lld(elf_filename: String, obj_filename: String) -> PyResult<()> {
     let linker_args = vec![
         "-shared".to_string(),
         "--eh-frame-hdr".to_string(),
@@ -740,9 +942,7 @@ fn link_with_lld(
             return Err(CompileError::new_err("failed to start linker"));
         }
     } else {
-        return Err(CompileError::new_err(
+        return Err(CompileError::new_err("linker returned non-zero status code"));
-            "linker returned non-zero status code",
-        ));
     }
 
     Ok(())
@@ -752,7 +952,7 @@ fn add_exceptions(
     composer: &mut TopLevelComposer,
     builtin_def: &mut HashMap<StrRef, DefinitionId>,
     builtin_ty: &mut HashMap<StrRef, Type>,
-    error_names: &[&str]
+    error_names: &[&str],
 ) -> Vec<Type> {
     let mut types = Vec::new();
     // note: this is only for builtin exceptions, i.e. the exception name is "0:{exn}"
@@ -765,7 +965,7 @@ fn add_exceptions(
             // constructor id
             def_id + 1,
             &mut composer.unifier,
-            &composer.primitives_ty
+            &composer.primitives_ty,
         );
         composer.definition_ast_list.push((Arc::new(RwLock::new(exception_class)), None));
         composer.definition_ast_list.push((Arc::new(RwLock::new(exception_fn)), None));
@@ -792,11 +992,11 @@ impl Nac3 {
             Isa::RiscV32IMA => &timeline::NOW_PINNING_TIME_FNS,
             Isa::CortexA9 | Isa::Host => &timeline::EXTERN_TIME_FNS,
         };
-        let primitive: PrimitiveStore = TopLevelComposer::make_primitives().0;
+        let (primitive, _) = TopLevelComposer::make_primitives(isa.get_size_type());
         let builtins = vec![
             (
                 "now_mu".into(),
-                FunSignature { args: vec![], ret: primitive.int64, vars: HashMap::new() },
+                FunSignature { args: vec![], ret: primitive.int64, vars: VarMap::new() },
                 Arc::new(GenCall::new(Box::new(move |ctx, _, _, _, _| {
                     Ok(Some(time_fns.emit_now_mu(ctx)))
                 }))),
@@ -808,13 +1008,15 @@ impl Nac3 {
                         name: "t".into(),
                         ty: primitive.int64,
                         default_value: None,
+                        is_vararg: false,
                     }],
                     ret: primitive.none,
-                    vars: HashMap::new(),
+                    vars: VarMap::new(),
                 },
                 Arc::new(GenCall::new(Box::new(move |ctx, _, fun, args, generator| {
                     let arg_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
-                    let arg = args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, arg_ty).unwrap();
+                    let arg =
+                        args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, arg_ty).unwrap();
                     time_fns.emit_at_mu(ctx, arg);
                     Ok(None)
                 }))),
@@ -826,13 +1028,15 @@ impl Nac3 {
                         name: "dt".into(),
                         ty: primitive.int64,
                         default_value: None,
+                        is_vararg: false,
                     }],
                     ret: primitive.none,
-                    vars: HashMap::new(),
+                    vars: VarMap::new(),
                 },
                 Arc::new(GenCall::new(Box::new(move |ctx, _, fun, args, generator| {
                     let arg_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
-                    let arg = args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, arg_ty).unwrap();
+                    let arg =
+                        args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, arg_ty).unwrap();
                     time_fns.emit_delay_mu(ctx, arg);
                     Ok(None)
                 }))),
@@ -846,8 +1050,9 @@ impl Nac3 {
         let types_mod = PyModule::import(py, "types").unwrap();
 
         let get_id = |x: &PyAny| id_fn.call1((x,)).and_then(PyAny::extract).unwrap();
-        let get_attr_id = |obj: &PyModule, attr| id_fn.call1((obj.getattr(attr).unwrap(),))
+        let get_attr_id = |obj: &PyModule, attr| {
-            .unwrap().extract().unwrap();
+            id_fn.call1((obj.getattr(attr).unwrap(),)).unwrap().extract().unwrap()
+        };
         let primitive_ids = PrimitivePythonId {
             virtual_id: get_id(artiq_builtins.get_item("virtual").ok().flatten().unwrap()),
             generic_alias: (
@@ -856,16 +1061,22 @@ impl Nac3 {
             ),
             none: get_id(artiq_builtins.get_item("none").ok().flatten().unwrap()),
             typevar: get_attr_id(typing_mod, "TypeVar"),
-            const_generic_marker: get_id(artiq_builtins.get_item("_ConstGenericMarker").ok().flatten().unwrap()),
+            const_generic_marker: get_id(
+                artiq_builtins.get_item("_ConstGenericMarker").ok().flatten().unwrap(),
+            ),
             int: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "int"),
             int32: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "int32"),
             int64: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "int64"),
             uint32: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "uint32"),
             uint64: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "uint64"),
             bool: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "bool"),
+            np_bool_: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "bool_"),
+            string: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "str"),
+            np_str_: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "str_"),
             float: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "float"),
             float64: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "float64"),
             list: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "list"),
+            ndarray: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "ndarray"),
             tuple: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "tuple"),
             exception: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "Exception"),
             option: get_id(artiq_builtins.get_item("Option").ok().flatten().unwrap()),
@@ -874,6 +1085,48 @@ impl Nac3 {
         let working_directory = tempfile::Builder::new().prefix("nac3-").tempdir().unwrap();
         fs::write(working_directory.path().join("kernel.ld"), include_bytes!("kernel.ld")).unwrap();
 
+        let mut string_store: HashMap<String, i32> = HashMap::default();
+
+        // Keep this list of exceptions in sync with `EXCEPTION_ID_LOOKUP` in `artiq::firmware::ksupport::eh_artiq`
+        // The exceptions declared here must be defined in `artiq.coredevice.exceptions`
+        // Verify synchronization by running the test cases in `artiq.test.coredevice.test_exceptions`
+        let runtime_exception_names = [
+            "RTIOUnderflow",
+            "RTIOOverflow",
+            "RTIODestinationUnreachable",
+            "DMAError",
+            "I2CError",
+            "CacheError",
+            "SPIError",
+            "SubkernelError",
+            "0:AssertionError",
+            "0:AttributeError",
+            "0:IndexError",
+            "0:IOError",
+            "0:KeyError",
+            "0:NotImplementedError",
+            "0:OverflowError",
+            "0:RuntimeError",
+            "0:TimeoutError",
+            "0:TypeError",
+            "0:ValueError",
+            "0:ZeroDivisionError",
+            "0:LinAlgError",
+            "UnwrapNoneError",
+        ];
+
+        // Preallocate runtime exception names
+        for (i, name) in runtime_exception_names.iter().enumerate() {
+            let exn_name = if name.find(':').is_none() {
+                format!("0:artiq.coredevice.exceptions.{name}")
+            } else {
+                (*name).to_string()
+            };
+
+            let id = i32::try_from(i).unwrap();
+            string_store.insert(exn_name, id);
+        }
+
         Ok(Nac3 {
             isa,
             time_fns,
@@ -883,17 +1136,22 @@ impl Nac3 {
             top_levels: Vec::default(),
             pyid_to_def: Arc::default(),
             working_directory,
-            string_store: Arc::default(),
+            string_store: Arc::new(string_store.into()),
             exception_ids: Arc::default(),
             deferred_eval_store: DeferredEvaluationStore::new(),
             llvm_options: CodeGenLLVMOptions {
                 opt_level: OptimizationLevel::Default,
                 target: Nac3::get_llvm_target_options(isa),
-            }
+            },
         })
     }
 
-    fn analyze(&mut self, functions: &PySet, classes: &PySet) -> PyResult<()> {
+    fn analyze(
+        &mut self,
+        functions: &PySet,
+        classes: &PySet,
+        content_modules: &PySet,
+    ) -> PyResult<()> {
         let (modules, class_ids) =
             Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<(HashMap<u64, PyObject>, HashSet<u64>)> {
                 let mut modules: HashMap<u64, PyObject> = HashMap::new();
@@ -903,14 +1161,22 @@ impl Nac3 {
                 let getmodule_fn = PyModule::import(py, "inspect")?.getattr("getmodule")?;
 
                 for function in functions {
-                    let module = getmodule_fn.call1((function,))?.extract()?;
+                    let module: PyObject = getmodule_fn.call1((function,))?.extract()?;
-                    modules.insert(id_fn.call1((&module,))?.extract()?, module);
+                    if !module.is_none(py) {
+                        modules.insert(id_fn.call1((&module,))?.extract()?, module);
+                    }
                 }
                 for class in classes {
-                    let module = getmodule_fn.call1((class,))?.extract()?;
+                    let module: PyObject = getmodule_fn.call1((class,))?.extract()?;
-                    modules.insert(id_fn.call1((&module,))?.extract()?, module);
+                    if !module.is_none(py) {
+                        modules.insert(id_fn.call1((&module,))?.extract()?, module);
+                    }
                     class_ids.insert(id_fn.call1((class,))?.extract()?);
                 }
+                for module in content_modules {
+                    let module: PyObject = module.extract()?;
+                    modules.insert(id_fn.call1((&module,))?.extract()?, module);
+                }
                 Ok((modules, class_ids))
             })?;
 
@@ -930,7 +1196,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
         py: Python,
     ) -> PyResult<()> {
         let target_machine = self.get_llvm_target_machine();
-        
+
         if self.isa == Isa::Host {
             let link_fn = |module: &Module| {
                 let working_directory = self.working_directory.path().to_owned();
@@ -939,7 +1205,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
                     .expect("couldn't write module to file");
                 link_with_lld(
                     filename.to_string(),
-                    working_directory.join("module.o").to_string_lossy().to_string()
+                    working_directory.join("module.o").to_string_lossy().to_string(),
                 )?;
                 Ok(())
             };
@@ -975,7 +1241,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
         py: Python,
     ) -> PyResult<PyObject> {
         let target_machine = self.get_llvm_target_machine();
-        
+
         if self.isa == Isa::Host {
             let link_fn = |module: &Module| {
                 let working_directory = self.working_directory.path().to_owned();
@@ -987,7 +1253,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
                 let filename = filename_path.to_str().unwrap();
                 link_with_lld(
                     filename.to_string(),
-                    working_directory.join("module.o").to_string_lossy().to_string()
+                    working_directory.join("module.o").to_string_lossy().to_string(),
                 )?;
 
                 Ok(PyBytes::new(py, &fs::read(filename).unwrap()).into())

nac3artiq/src/timeline.rs

@@ -1,9 +1,15 @@
-use inkwell::{values::BasicValueEnum, AddressSpace, AtomicOrdering};
+use itertools::Either;
-use nac3core::codegen::CodeGenContext;
+
+use nac3core::{
+    codegen::CodeGenContext,
+    inkwell::{
+        values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue},
+        AddressSpace, AtomicOrdering,
+    },
+};
 
 /// Functions for manipulating the timeline.
 pub trait TimeFns {
-
     /// Emits LLVM IR for `now_mu`.
     fn emit_now_mu<'ctx>(&self, ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx>;
 
@@ -26,32 +32,33 @@ impl TimeFns for NowPinningTimeFns64 {
             .module
             .get_global("now")
             .unwrap_or_else(|| ctx.module.add_global(i64_type, None, "now"));
-        let now_hiptr =
+        let now_hiptr = ctx
-            ctx.builder.build_bitcast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr");
+            .builder
-
+            .build_bit_cast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
-        let BasicValueEnum::PointerValue(now_hiptr) = now_hiptr else {
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
-            unreachable!()
+            .unwrap();
-        };
 
         let now_loptr = unsafe {
             ctx.builder.build_gep(now_hiptr, &[i32_type.const_int(2, false)], "now.lo.addr")
-        };
+        }
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let (BasicValueEnum::IntValue(now_hi), BasicValueEnum::IntValue(now_lo)) = (
+        let now_hi = ctx
-            ctx.builder.build_load(now_hiptr, "now.hi"),
+            .builder
-            ctx.builder.build_load(now_loptr, "now.lo"),
+            .build_load(now_hiptr, "now.hi")
-        ) else {
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
-            unreachable!()
+            .unwrap();
-        };
+        let now_lo = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_load(now_loptr, "now.lo")
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let zext_hi = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend(now_hi, i64_type, "");
+        let zext_hi = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend(now_hi, i64_type, "").unwrap();
-        let shifted_hi = ctx.builder.build_left_shift(
+        let shifted_hi =
-            zext_hi,
+            ctx.builder.build_left_shift(zext_hi, i64_type.const_int(32, false), "").unwrap();
-            i64_type.const_int(32, false),
+        let zext_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend(now_lo, i64_type, "").unwrap();
-            "",
+        ctx.builder.build_or(shifted_hi, zext_lo, "now_mu").map(Into::into).unwrap()
-        );
-        let zext_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend(now_lo, i64_type, "");
-        ctx.builder.build_or(shifted_hi, zext_lo, "now_mu").into()
     }
 
     fn emit_at_mu<'ctx>(&self, ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, t: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>) {
@@ -59,105 +66,100 @@ impl TimeFns for NowPinningTimeFns64 {
         let i64_type = ctx.ctx.i64_type();
 
         let i64_32 = i64_type.const_int(32, false);
-        let BasicValueEnum::IntValue(time) = t else {
+        let time = t.into_int_value();
-            unreachable!()
-        };
 
-        let time_hi = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(
+        let time_hi = ctx
-            ctx.builder.build_right_shift(time, i64_32, false, "time.hi"),
+            .builder
-            i32_type,
+            .build_int_truncate(
-            "",
+                ctx.builder.build_right_shift(time, i64_32, false, "time.hi").unwrap(),
-        );
+                i32_type,
-        let time_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(time, i32_type, "time.lo");
+                "",
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let time_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(time, i32_type, "time.lo").unwrap();
         let now = ctx
             .module
             .get_global("now")
             .unwrap_or_else(|| ctx.module.add_global(i64_type, None, "now"));
-        let now_hiptr = ctx.builder.build_bitcast(
+        let now_hiptr = ctx
-            now,
+            .builder
-            i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
+            .build_bit_cast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
-            "now.hi.addr",
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
-        );
+            .unwrap();
-
-        let BasicValueEnum::PointerValue(now_hiptr) = now_hiptr else {
-            unreachable!()
-        };
 
         let now_loptr = unsafe {
             ctx.builder.build_gep(now_hiptr, &[i32_type.const_int(2, false)], "now.lo.addr")
-        };
+        }
+        .unwrap();
         ctx.builder
             .build_store(now_hiptr, time_hi)
+            .unwrap()
             .set_atomic_ordering(AtomicOrdering::SequentiallyConsistent)
             .unwrap();
         ctx.builder
             .build_store(now_loptr, time_lo)
+            .unwrap()
             .set_atomic_ordering(AtomicOrdering::SequentiallyConsistent)
             .unwrap();
     }
 
-    fn emit_delay_mu<'ctx>(
+    fn emit_delay_mu<'ctx>(&self, ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, dt: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>) {
-        &self,
-        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-        dt: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
-    ) {
         let i64_type = ctx.ctx.i64_type();
         let i32_type = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
         let now = ctx
             .module
             .get_global("now")
             .unwrap_or_else(|| ctx.module.add_global(i64_type, None, "now"));
-        let now_hiptr =
+        let now_hiptr = ctx
-            ctx.builder.build_bitcast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr");
+            .builder
-
+            .build_bit_cast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
-        let BasicValueEnum::PointerValue(now_hiptr) = now_hiptr else {
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
-            unreachable!()
+            .unwrap();
-        };
 
         let now_loptr = unsafe {
             ctx.builder.build_gep(now_hiptr, &[i32_type.const_int(2, false)], "now.lo.addr")
-        };
+        }
+        .unwrap();
 
-        let (
+        let now_hi = ctx
-            BasicValueEnum::IntValue(now_hi),
+            .builder
-            BasicValueEnum::IntValue(now_lo),
+            .build_load(now_hiptr, "now.hi")
-            BasicValueEnum::IntValue(dt),
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
-        ) = (
+            .unwrap();
-            ctx.builder.build_load(now_hiptr, "now.hi"),
+        let now_lo = ctx
-            ctx.builder.build_load(now_loptr, "now.lo"),
+            .builder
-            dt,
+            .build_load(now_loptr, "now.lo")
-        ) else {
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
-            unreachable!()
+            .unwrap();
-        };
+        let dt = dt.into_int_value();
 
-        let zext_hi = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend(now_hi, i64_type, "");
+        let zext_hi = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend(now_hi, i64_type, "").unwrap();
-        let shifted_hi = ctx.builder.build_left_shift(
+        let shifted_hi =
-            zext_hi,
+            ctx.builder.build_left_shift(zext_hi, i64_type.const_int(32, false), "").unwrap();
-            i64_type.const_int(32, false),
+        let zext_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend(now_lo, i64_type, "").unwrap();
-            "",
+        let now_val = ctx.builder.build_or(shifted_hi, zext_lo, "now").unwrap();
-        );
-        let zext_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend(now_lo, i64_type, "");
-        let now_val = ctx.builder.build_or(shifted_hi, zext_lo, "now");
 
-        let time = ctx.builder.build_int_add(now_val, dt, "time");
+        let time = ctx.builder.build_int_add(now_val, dt, "time").unwrap();
-        let time_hi = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(
+        let time_hi = ctx
-            ctx.builder.build_right_shift(
+            .builder
-                time,
+            .build_int_truncate(
-                i64_type.const_int(32, false),
+                ctx.builder
-                false,
+                    .build_right_shift(time, i64_type.const_int(32, false), false, "")
-                "",
+                    .unwrap(),
-            ),
+                i32_type,
-            i32_type,
+                "time.hi",
-            "time.hi",
+            )
-        );
+            .unwrap();
-        let time_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(time, i32_type, "time.lo");
+        let time_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(time, i32_type, "time.lo").unwrap();
 
         ctx.builder
             .build_store(now_hiptr, time_hi)
+            .unwrap()
             .set_atomic_ordering(AtomicOrdering::SequentiallyConsistent)
             .unwrap();
         ctx.builder
             .build_store(now_loptr, time_lo)
+            .unwrap()
             .set_atomic_ordering(AtomicOrdering::SequentiallyConsistent)
             .unwrap();
     }
@@ -174,16 +176,16 @@ impl TimeFns for NowPinningTimeFns {
             .module
             .get_global("now")
             .unwrap_or_else(|| ctx.module.add_global(i64_type, None, "now"));
-        let now_raw = ctx.builder.build_load(now.as_pointer_value(), "now");
+        let now_raw = ctx
-
+            .builder
-        let BasicValueEnum::IntValue(now_raw) = now_raw else {
+            .build_load(now.as_pointer_value(), "now")
-            unreachable!()
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
-        };
+            .unwrap();
 
         let i64_32 = i64_type.const_int(32, false);
-        let now_lo = ctx.builder.build_left_shift(now_raw, i64_32, "now.lo");
+        let now_lo = ctx.builder.build_left_shift(now_raw, i64_32, "now.lo").unwrap();
-        let now_hi = ctx.builder.build_right_shift(now_raw, i64_32, false, "now.hi");
+        let now_hi = ctx.builder.build_right_shift(now_raw, i64_32, false, "now.hi").unwrap();
-        ctx.builder.build_or(now_lo, now_hi, "now_mu").into()
+        ctx.builder.build_or(now_lo, now_hi, "now_mu").map(Into::into).unwrap()
     }
 
     fn emit_at_mu<'ctx>(&self, ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, t: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>) {
@@ -191,48 +193,44 @@ impl TimeFns for NowPinningTimeFns {
         let i64_type = ctx.ctx.i64_type();
         let i64_32 = i64_type.const_int(32, false);
 
-        let BasicValueEnum::IntValue(time) = t else {
+        let time = t.into_int_value();
-            unreachable!()
-        };
 
-        let time_hi = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(
+        let time_hi = ctx
-            ctx.builder.build_right_shift(time, i64_32, false, ""),
+            .builder
-            i32_type,
+            .build_int_truncate(
-            "time.hi",
+                ctx.builder.build_right_shift(time, i64_32, false, "").unwrap(),
-        );
+                i32_type,
-        let time_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(time, i32_type, "now_trunc");
+                "time.hi",
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let time_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(time, i32_type, "now_trunc").unwrap();
         let now = ctx
             .module
             .get_global("now")
             .unwrap_or_else(|| ctx.module.add_global(i64_type, None, "now"));
-        let now_hiptr = ctx.builder.build_bitcast(
+        let now_hiptr = ctx
-            now,
+            .builder
-            i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
+            .build_bit_cast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
-            "now.hi.addr",
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
-        );
+            .unwrap();
-
-        let BasicValueEnum::PointerValue(now_hiptr) = now_hiptr else {
-            unreachable!()
-        };
 
         let now_loptr = unsafe {
             ctx.builder.build_gep(now_hiptr, &[i32_type.const_int(1, false)], "now.lo.addr")
-        };
+        }
+        .unwrap();
         ctx.builder
             .build_store(now_hiptr, time_hi)
+            .unwrap()
             .set_atomic_ordering(AtomicOrdering::SequentiallyConsistent)
             .unwrap();
         ctx.builder
             .build_store(now_loptr, time_lo)
+            .unwrap()
             .set_atomic_ordering(AtomicOrdering::SequentiallyConsistent)
             .unwrap();
     }
 
-    fn emit_delay_mu<'ctx>(
+    fn emit_delay_mu<'ctx>(&self, ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, dt: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>) {
-        &self,
-        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-        dt: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
-    ) {
         let i32_type = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
         let i64_type = ctx.ctx.i64_type();
         let i64_32 = i64_type.const_int(32, false);
@@ -240,41 +238,45 @@ impl TimeFns for NowPinningTimeFns {
             .module
             .get_global("now")
             .unwrap_or_else(|| ctx.module.add_global(i64_type, None, "now"));
-        let now_raw = ctx.builder.build_load(now.as_pointer_value(), "");
+        let now_raw = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_load(now.as_pointer_value(), "")
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+            .unwrap();
 
-        let (BasicValueEnum::IntValue(now_raw), BasicValueEnum::IntValue(dt)) = (now_raw, dt) else { 
+        let dt = dt.into_int_value();
-            unreachable!() 
-        };
 
-        let now_lo = ctx.builder.build_left_shift(now_raw, i64_32, "now.lo");
+        let now_lo = ctx.builder.build_left_shift(now_raw, i64_32, "now.lo").unwrap();
-        let now_hi = ctx.builder.build_right_shift(now_raw, i64_32, false, "now.hi");
+        let now_hi = ctx.builder.build_right_shift(now_raw, i64_32, false, "now.hi").unwrap();
-        let now_val = ctx.builder.build_or(now_lo, now_hi, "now_val");
+        let now_val = ctx.builder.build_or(now_lo, now_hi, "now_val").unwrap();
-        let time = ctx.builder.build_int_add(now_val, dt, "time");
+        let time = ctx.builder.build_int_add(now_val, dt, "time").unwrap();
-        let time_hi = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(
+        let time_hi = ctx
-            ctx.builder.build_right_shift(time, i64_32, false, "time.hi"),
+            .builder
-            i32_type,
+            .build_int_truncate(
-            "now_trunc",
+                ctx.builder.build_right_shift(time, i64_32, false, "time.hi").unwrap(),
-        );
+                i32_type,
-        let time_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(time, i32_type, "time.lo");
+                "now_trunc",
-        let now_hiptr = ctx.builder.build_bitcast(
+            )
-            now,
+            .unwrap();
-            i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
+        let time_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(time, i32_type, "time.lo").unwrap();
-            "now.hi.addr",
+        let now_hiptr = ctx
-        );
+            .builder
-
+            .build_bit_cast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
-        let BasicValueEnum::PointerValue(now_hiptr) = now_hiptr else { 
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
-            unreachable!()
+            .unwrap();
-        };
 
         let now_loptr = unsafe {
             ctx.builder.build_gep(now_hiptr, &[i32_type.const_int(1, false)], "now.lo.addr")
-        };
+        }
+        .unwrap();
         ctx.builder
             .build_store(now_hiptr, time_hi)
+            .unwrap()
             .set_atomic_ordering(AtomicOrdering::SequentiallyConsistent)
             .unwrap();
         ctx.builder
             .build_store(now_loptr, time_lo)
+            .unwrap()
             .set_atomic_ordering(AtomicOrdering::SequentiallyConsistent)
             .unwrap();
     }
@@ -289,7 +291,11 @@ impl TimeFns for ExternTimeFns {
         let now_mu = ctx.module.get_function("now_mu").unwrap_or_else(|| {
             ctx.module.add_function("now_mu", ctx.ctx.i64_type().fn_type(&[], false), None)
         });
-        ctx.builder.build_call(now_mu, &[], "now_mu").try_as_basic_value().left().unwrap()
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_call(now_mu, &[], "now_mu")
+            .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+            .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+            .unwrap()
     }
 
     fn emit_at_mu<'ctx>(&self, ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, t: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>) {
@@ -300,14 +306,10 @@ impl TimeFns for ExternTimeFns {
                 None,
             )
         });
-        ctx.builder.build_call(at_mu, &[t.into()], "at_mu");
+        ctx.builder.build_call(at_mu, &[t.into()], "at_mu").unwrap();
     }
 
-    fn emit_delay_mu<'ctx>(
+    fn emit_delay_mu<'ctx>(&self, ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, dt: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>) {
-        &self,
-        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-        dt: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
-    ) {
         let delay_mu = ctx.module.get_function("delay_mu").unwrap_or_else(|| {
             ctx.module.add_function(
                 "delay_mu",
@@ -315,7 +317,7 @@ impl TimeFns for ExternTimeFns {
                 None,
             )
         });
-        ctx.builder.build_call(delay_mu, &[dt.into()], "delay_mu");
+        ctx.builder.build_call(delay_mu, &[dt.into()], "delay_mu").unwrap();
     }
 }
 

nac3ast/Cargo.toml

@@ -10,7 +10,6 @@ constant-optimization = ["fold"]
 fold = []
 
 [dependencies]
-lazy_static = "1.4"
 parking_lot = "0.12"
-string-interner = "0.14"
+string-interner = "0.17"
 fxhash = "0.2"

nac3ast/src/constant.rs

@@ -28,12 +28,12 @@ impl From<bool> for Constant {
 }
 impl From<i32> for Constant {
     fn from(i: i32) -> Constant {
-        Self::Int(i as i128)
+        Self::Int(i128::from(i))
     }
 }
 impl From<i64> for Constant {
     fn from(i: i64) -> Constant {
-        Self::Int(i as i128)
+        Self::Int(i128::from(i))
     }
 }
 
@@ -50,6 +50,7 @@ pub enum ConversionFlag {
 }
 
 impl ConversionFlag {
+    #[must_use]
     pub fn try_from_byte(b: u8) -> Option<Self> {
         match b {
             b's' => Some(Self::Str),
@@ -69,6 +70,7 @@ pub struct ConstantOptimizer {
 #[cfg(feature = "constant-optimization")]
 impl ConstantOptimizer {
     #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
     pub fn new() -> Self {
         Self { _priv: () }
     }
@@ -85,33 +87,22 @@ impl<U> crate::fold::Fold<U> for ConstantOptimizer {
     fn fold_expr(&mut self, node: crate::Expr<U>) -> Result<crate::Expr<U>, Self::Error> {
         match node.node {
             crate::ExprKind::Tuple { elts, ctx } => {
-                let elts = elts
+                let elts =
-                    .into_iter()
+                    elts.into_iter().map(|x| self.fold_expr(x)).collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
-                    .map(|x| self.fold_expr(x))
+                let expr =
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                    if elts.iter().all(|e| matches!(e.node, crate::ExprKind::Constant { .. })) {
-                let expr = if elts
+                        let tuple = elts
-                    .iter()
+                            .into_iter()
-                    .all(|e| matches!(e.node, crate::ExprKind::Constant { .. }))
+                            .map(|e| match e.node {
-                {
+                                crate::ExprKind::Constant { value, .. } => value,
-                    let tuple = elts
+                                _ => unreachable!(),
-                        .into_iter()
+                            })
-                        .map(|e| match e.node {
+                            .collect();
-                            crate::ExprKind::Constant { value, .. } => value,
+                        crate::ExprKind::Constant { value: Constant::Tuple(tuple), kind: None }
-                            _ => unreachable!(),
+                    } else {
-                        })
+                        crate::ExprKind::Tuple { elts, ctx }
-                        .collect();
+                    };
-                    crate::ExprKind::Constant {
+                Ok(crate::Expr { node: expr, custom: node.custom, location: node.location })
-                        value: Constant::Tuple(tuple),
-                        kind: None,
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    crate::ExprKind::Tuple { elts, ctx }
-                };
-                Ok(crate::Expr {
-                    node: expr,
-                    custom: node.custom,
-                    location: node.location,
-                })
             }
             _ => crate::fold::fold_expr(self, node),
         }
@@ -127,7 +118,7 @@ mod tests {
         use crate::fold::Fold;
         use crate::*;
 
-        let location = Location::new(0, 0, Default::default());
+        let location = Location::new(0, 0, FileName::default());
         let custom = ();
         let ast = Located {
             location,
@@ -138,18 +129,12 @@ mod tests {
                     Located {
                         location,
                         custom,
-                        node: ExprKind::Constant {
+                        node: ExprKind::Constant { value: 1.into(), kind: None },
-                            value: 1.into(),
-                            kind: None,
-                        },
                     },
                     Located {
                         location,
                         custom,
-                        node: ExprKind::Constant {
+                        node: ExprKind::Constant { value: 2.into(), kind: None },
-                            value: 2.into(),
-                            kind: None,
-                        },
                     },
                     Located {
                         location,
@@ -160,26 +145,17 @@ mod tests {
                                 Located {
                                     location,
                                     custom,
-                                    node: ExprKind::Constant {
+                                    node: ExprKind::Constant { value: 3.into(), kind: None },
-                                        value: 3.into(),
-                                        kind: None,
-                                    },
                                 },
                                 Located {
                                     location,
                                     custom,
-                                    node: ExprKind::Constant {
+                                    node: ExprKind::Constant { value: 4.into(), kind: None },
-                                        value: 4.into(),
-                                        kind: None,
-                                    },
                                 },
                                 Located {
                                     location,
                                     custom,
-                                    node: ExprKind::Constant {
+                                    node: ExprKind::Constant { value: 5.into(), kind: None },
-                                        value: 5.into(),
-                                        kind: None,
-                                    },
                                 },
                             ],
                         },
@@ -187,9 +163,7 @@ mod tests {
                 ],
             },
         };
-        let new_ast = ConstantOptimizer::new()
+        let new_ast = ConstantOptimizer::new().fold_expr(ast).unwrap_or_else(|e| match e {});
-            .fold_expr(ast)
-            .unwrap_or_else(|e| match e {});
         assert_eq!(
             new_ast,
             Located {
@@ -199,11 +173,7 @@ mod tests {
                     value: Constant::Tuple(vec![
                         1.into(),
                         2.into(),
-                        Constant::Tuple(vec![
+                        Constant::Tuple(vec![3.into(), 4.into(), 5.into(),])
-                            3.into(),
-                            4.into(),
-                            5.into(),
-                        ])
                     ]),
                     kind: None
                 },

nac3ast/src/fold_helpers.rs

@@ -64,11 +64,4 @@ macro_rules! simple_fold {
     };
 }
 
-simple_fold!(
+simple_fold!(usize, String, bool, StrRef, constant::Constant, constant::ConversionFlag);
-    usize,
-    String,
-    bool,
-    StrRef,
-    constant::Constant,
-    constant::ConversionFlag
-);

nac3ast/src/impls.rs

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ use crate::{Constant, ExprKind};
 
 impl<U> ExprKind<U> {
     /// Returns a short name for the node suitable for use in error messages.
+    #[must_use]
     pub fn name(&self) -> &'static str {
         match self {
             ExprKind::BoolOp { .. } | ExprKind::BinOp { .. } | ExprKind::UnaryOp { .. } => {
@@ -34,10 +35,7 @@ impl<U> ExprKind<U> {
             ExprKind::Starred { .. } => "starred",
             ExprKind::Slice { .. } => "slice",
             ExprKind::JoinedStr { values } => {
-                if values
+                if values.iter().any(|e| matches!(e.node, ExprKind::JoinedStr { .. })) {
-                    .iter()
-                    .any(|e| matches!(e.node, ExprKind::JoinedStr { .. }))
-                {
                     "f-string expression"
                 } else {
                     "literal"

nac3ast/src/lib.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,12 @@
-#[macro_use]
+#![deny(future_incompatible, let_underscore, nonstandard_style, clippy::all)]
-extern crate lazy_static;
+#![warn(clippy::pedantic)]
+#![allow(
+    clippy::missing_errors_doc,
+    clippy::missing_panics_doc,
+    clippy::module_name_repetitions,
+    clippy::too_many_lines,
+    clippy::wildcard_imports
+)]
 
 mod ast_gen;
 mod constant;
@@ -9,6 +16,6 @@ mod impls;
 mod location;
 
 pub use ast_gen::*;
-pub use location::{Location, FileName};
+pub use location::{FileName, Location};
 
 pub type Suite<U = ()> = Vec<Stmt<U>>;

nac3ast/src/location.rs

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 //! Datatypes to support source location information.
-use std::cmp::Ordering;
 use crate::ast_gen::StrRef;
+use std::cmp::Ordering;
 use std::fmt;
 
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ impl From<String> for FileName {
 pub struct Location {
     pub row: usize,
     pub column: usize,
-    pub file: FileName
+    pub file: FileName,
 }
 
 impl fmt::Display for Location {
@@ -35,12 +35,12 @@ impl Ord for Location {
     fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Ordering {
         let file_cmp = self.file.0.to_string().cmp(&other.file.0.to_string());
         if file_cmp != Ordering::Equal {
-            return file_cmp
+            return file_cmp;
         }
 
         let row_cmp = self.row.cmp(&other.row);
         if row_cmp != Ordering::Equal {
-            return row_cmp
+            return row_cmp;
         }
 
         self.column.cmp(&other.column)
@@ -76,23 +76,22 @@ impl Location {
                 )
             }
         }
-        Visualize {
+        Visualize { loc: *self, line, desc }
-            loc: *self,
-            line,
-            desc,
-        }
     }
 }
 
 impl Location {
+    #[must_use]
     pub fn new(row: usize, column: usize, file: FileName) -> Self {
         Location { row, column, file }
     }
 
+    #[must_use]
     pub fn row(&self) -> usize {
         self.row
     }
 
+    #[must_use]
     pub fn column(&self) -> usize {
         self.column
     }

nac3core/Cargo.toml

@@ -4,17 +4,26 @@ version = "0.1.0"
 authors = ["M-Labs"]
 edition = "2021"
 
+[features]
+default = ["derive"]
+derive = ["dep:nac3core_derive"]
+no-escape-analysis = []
+
 [dependencies]
-itertools = "0.12"
+itertools = "0.13"
 crossbeam = "0.8"
+indexmap = "2.6"
 parking_lot = "0.12"
-rayon = "1.5"
+rayon = "1.10"
+nac3core_derive = { path = "nac3core_derive", optional = true }
 nac3parser = { path = "../nac3parser" }
+strum = "0.26"
+strum_macros = "0.26"
 
 [dependencies.inkwell]
-version = "0.2"
+version = "0.5"
 default-features = false
-features = ["llvm14-0", "target-x86", "target-arm", "target-riscv", "no-libffi-linking"]
+features = ["llvm14-0-prefer-dynamic", "target-x86", "target-arm", "target-riscv", "no-libffi-linking"]
 
 [dev-dependencies]
 test-case = "1.2.0"

nac3core/build.rs

@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-use regex::Regex;
 use std::{
     env,
     fs::File,
@@ -7,35 +6,58 @@ use std::{
     process::{Command, Stdio},
 };
 
+use regex::Regex;
+
 fn main() {
-    const FILE: &str = "src/codegen/irrt/irrt.c";
+    let out_dir = env::var("OUT_DIR").unwrap();
+    let out_dir = Path::new(&out_dir);
+    let irrt_dir = Path::new("irrt");
+
+    let irrt_cpp_path = irrt_dir.join("irrt.cpp");
 
     /*
      * HACK: Sadly, clang doesn't let us emit generic LLVM bitcode.
      * Compiling for WASM32 and filtering the output with regex is the closest we can get.
      */
-    const FLAG: &[&str] = &[
+    let mut flags: Vec<&str> = vec![
         "--target=wasm32",
-        FILE,
+        "-x",
-        "-O3",
+        "c++",
+        "-std=c++20",
+        "-fno-discard-value-names",
+        "-fno-exceptions",
+        "-fno-rtti",
         "-emit-llvm",
         "-S",
         "-Wall",
         "-Wextra",
         "-o",
         "-",
+        "-I",
+        irrt_dir.to_str().unwrap(),
+        irrt_cpp_path.to_str().unwrap(),
     ];
 
-    println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed={FILE}");
+    match env::var("PROFILE").as_deref() {
-    let out_dir = env::var("OUT_DIR").unwrap();
+        Ok("debug") => {
-    let out_path = Path::new(&out_dir);
+            flags.push("-O0");
+            flags.push("-DIRRT_DEBUG_ASSERT");
+        }
+        Ok("release") => {
+            flags.push("-O3");
+        }
+        flavor => panic!("Unknown or missing build flavor {flavor:?}"),
+    }
 
+    // Tell Cargo to rerun if any file under `irrt_dir` (recursive) changes
+    println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed={}", irrt_dir.to_str().unwrap());
+
+    // Compile IRRT and capture the LLVM IR output
     let output = Command::new("clang-irrt")
-        .args(FLAG)
+        .args(flags)
         .output()
-        .map(|o| {
+        .inspect(|o| {
             assert!(o.status.success(), "{}", std::str::from_utf8(&o.stderr).unwrap());
-            o
         })
         .unwrap();
 
@@ -43,7 +65,17 @@ fn main() {
     let output = std::str::from_utf8(&output.stdout).unwrap().replace("\r\n", "\n");
     let mut filtered_output = String::with_capacity(output.len());
 
-    let regex_filter = Regex::new(r"(?ms:^define.*?\}$)|(?m:^declare.*?$)").unwrap();
+    // Filter out irrelevant IR
+    //
+    // Regex:
+    // - `(?ms:^define.*?\}$)` captures LLVM `define` blocks
+    // - `(?m:^declare.*?$)` captures LLVM `declare` lines
+    // - `(?m:^%.+?=\s*type\s*\{.+?\}$)` captures LLVM `type` declarations
+    // - `(?m:^@.+?=.+$)` captures global constants
+    let regex_filter = Regex::new(
+        r"(?ms:^define.*?\}$)|(?m:^declare.*?$)|(?m:^%.+?=\s*type\s*\{.+?\}$)|(?m:^@.+?=.+$)",
+    )
+    .unwrap();
     for f in regex_filter.captures_iter(&output) {
         assert_eq!(f.len(), 1);
         filtered_output.push_str(&f[0]);
@@ -54,18 +86,22 @@ fn main() {
         .unwrap()
         .replace_all(&filtered_output, "");
 
-    println!("cargo:rerun-if-env-changed=DEBUG_DUMP_IRRT");
+    // For debugging
-    if env::var("DEBUG_DUMP_IRRT").is_ok() {
+    // Doing `DEBUG_DUMP_IRRT=1 cargo build -p nac3core` dumps the LLVM IR generated
-        let mut file = File::create(out_path.join("irrt.ll")).unwrap();
+    const DEBUG_DUMP_IRRT: &str = "DEBUG_DUMP_IRRT";
+    println!("cargo:rerun-if-env-changed={DEBUG_DUMP_IRRT}");
+    if env::var(DEBUG_DUMP_IRRT).is_ok() {
+        let mut file = File::create(out_dir.join("irrt.ll")).unwrap();
         file.write_all(output.as_bytes()).unwrap();
-        let mut file = File::create(out_path.join("irrt-filtered.ll")).unwrap();
+
+        let mut file = File::create(out_dir.join("irrt-filtered.ll")).unwrap();
         file.write_all(filtered_output.as_bytes()).unwrap();
     }
 
     let mut llvm_as = Command::new("llvm-as-irrt")
         .stdin(Stdio::piped())
         .arg("-o")
-        .arg(out_path.join("irrt.bc"))
+        .arg(out_dir.join("irrt.bc"))
         .spawn()
         .unwrap();
     llvm_as.stdin.as_mut().unwrap().write_all(filtered_output.as_bytes()).unwrap();

nac3core/irrt/irrt.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+#include "irrt/exception.hpp"
+#include "irrt/list.hpp"
+#include "irrt/math.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray.hpp"
+#include "irrt/range.hpp"
+#include "irrt/slice.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/iter.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/indexing.hpp"

nac3core/irrt/irrt/cslice.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+
+template<typename SizeT>
+struct CSlice {
+    void* base;
+    SizeT len;
+};

nac3core/irrt/irrt/debug.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+#pragma once
+
+// Set in nac3core/build.rs
+#ifdef IRRT_DEBUG_ASSERT
+#define IRRT_DEBUG_ASSERT_BOOL true
+#else
+#define IRRT_DEBUG_ASSERT_BOOL false
+#endif
+
+#define raise_debug_assert(SizeT, msg, param1, param2, param3) \
+    raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_ASSERTION_ERROR, "IRRT debug assert failed: " msg, param1, param2, param3)
+
+#define debug_assert_eq(SizeT, lhs, rhs)                                           \
+    if constexpr (IRRT_DEBUG_ASSERT_BOOL) {                                        \
+        if ((lhs) != (rhs)) {                                                      \
+            raise_debug_assert(SizeT, "LHS = {0}. RHS = {1}", lhs, rhs, NO_PARAM); \
+        }                                                                          \
+    }
+
+#define debug_assert(SizeT, expr)                                                  \
+    if constexpr (IRRT_DEBUG_ASSERT_BOOL) {                                        \
+        if (!(expr)) {                                                             \
+            raise_debug_assert(SizeT, "Got false.", NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM); \
+        }                                                                          \
+    }

nac3core/irrt/irrt/exception.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/cslice.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+
+/**
+ * @brief The int type of ARTIQ exception IDs.
+ */
+using ExceptionId = int32_t;
+
+/*
+ * Set of exceptions C++ IRRT can use.
+ * Must be synchronized with `setup_irrt_exceptions` in `nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/mod.rs`.
+ */
+extern "C" {
+ExceptionId EXN_INDEX_ERROR;
+ExceptionId EXN_VALUE_ERROR;
+ExceptionId EXN_ASSERTION_ERROR;
+ExceptionId EXN_TYPE_ERROR;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Extern function to `__nac3_raise`
+ *
+ * The parameter `err` could be `Exception<int32_t>` or `Exception<int64_t>`. The caller
+ * must make sure to pass `Exception`s with the correct `SizeT` depending on the `size_t` of the runtime.
+ */
+extern "C" void __nac3_raise(void* err);
+
+namespace {
+/**
+ * @brief NAC3's Exception struct
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+struct Exception {
+    ExceptionId id;
+    CSlice<SizeT> filename;
+    int32_t line;
+    int32_t column;
+    CSlice<SizeT> function;
+    CSlice<SizeT> msg;
+    int64_t params[3];
+};
+
+constexpr int64_t NO_PARAM = 0;
+
+template<typename SizeT>
+void _raise_exception_helper(ExceptionId id,
+                             const char* filename,
+                             int32_t line,
+                             const char* function,
+                             const char* msg,
+                             int64_t param0,
+                             int64_t param1,
+                             int64_t param2) {
+    Exception<SizeT> e = {
+        .id = id,
+        .filename = {.base = reinterpret_cast<void*>(const_cast<char*>(filename)),
+                     .len = static_cast<SizeT>(__builtin_strlen(filename))},
+        .line = line,
+        .column = 0,
+        .function = {.base = reinterpret_cast<void*>(const_cast<char*>(function)),
+                     .len = static_cast<SizeT>(__builtin_strlen(function))},
+        .msg = {.base = reinterpret_cast<void*>(const_cast<char*>(msg)),
+                .len = static_cast<SizeT>(__builtin_strlen(msg))},
+    };
+    e.params[0] = param0;
+    e.params[1] = param1;
+    e.params[2] = param2;
+    __nac3_raise(reinterpret_cast<void*>(&e));
+    __builtin_unreachable();
+}
+}  // namespace
+
+/**
+ * @brief Raise an exception with location details (location in the IRRT source files).
+ * @param SizeT The runtime `size_t` type.
+ * @param id The ID of the exception to raise.
+ * @param msg A global constant C-string of the error message.
+ *
+ * `param0` to `param2` are optional format arguments of `msg`. They should be set to
+ * `NO_PARAM` to indicate they are unused.
+ */
+#define raise_exception(SizeT, id, msg, param0, param1, param2) \
+    _raise_exception_helper<SizeT>(id, __FILE__, __LINE__, __FUNCTION__, msg, param0, param1, param2)

nac3core/irrt/irrt/int_types.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#if __STDC_VERSION__ >= 202000
+using int8_t = _BitInt(8);
+using uint8_t = unsigned _BitInt(8);
+using int32_t = _BitInt(32);
+using uint32_t = unsigned _BitInt(32);
+using int64_t = _BitInt(64);
+using uint64_t = unsigned _BitInt(64);
+#else
+
+#pragma clang diagnostic push
+#pragma clang diagnostic ignored "-Wdeprecated-type"
+using int8_t = _ExtInt(8);
+using uint8_t = unsigned _ExtInt(8);
+using int32_t = _ExtInt(32);
+using uint32_t = unsigned _ExtInt(32);
+using int64_t = _ExtInt(64);
+using uint64_t = unsigned _ExtInt(64);
+#pragma clang diagnostic pop
+
+#endif
+
+// NDArray indices are always `uint32_t`.
+using NDIndexInt = uint32_t;
+// The type of an index or a value describing the length of a range/slice is always `int32_t`.
+using SliceIndex = int32_t;

nac3core/irrt/irrt/list.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/math_util.hpp"
+
+extern "C" {
+// Handle list assignment and dropping part of the list when
+// both dest_step and src_step are +1.
+// - All the index must *not* be out-of-bound or negative,
+// - The end index is *inclusive*,
+// - The length of src and dest slice size should already
+// be checked: if dest.step == 1 then len(src) <= len(dest) else len(src) == len(dest)
+SliceIndex __nac3_list_slice_assign_var_size(SliceIndex dest_start,
+                                             SliceIndex dest_end,
+                                             SliceIndex dest_step,
+                                             void* dest_arr,
+                                             SliceIndex dest_arr_len,
+                                             SliceIndex src_start,
+                                             SliceIndex src_end,
+                                             SliceIndex src_step,
+                                             void* src_arr,
+                                             SliceIndex src_arr_len,
+                                             const SliceIndex size) {
+    /* if dest_arr_len == 0, do nothing since we do not support extending list */
+    if (dest_arr_len == 0)
+        return dest_arr_len;
+    /* if both step is 1, memmove directly, handle the dropping of the list, and shrink size */
+    if (src_step == dest_step && dest_step == 1) {
+        const SliceIndex src_len = (src_end >= src_start) ? (src_end - src_start + 1) : 0;
+        const SliceIndex dest_len = (dest_end >= dest_start) ? (dest_end - dest_start + 1) : 0;
+        if (src_len > 0) {
+            __builtin_memmove(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_start * size,
+                              static_cast<uint8_t*>(src_arr) + src_start * size, src_len * size);
+        }
+        if (dest_len > 0) {
+            /* dropping */
+            __builtin_memmove(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + (dest_start + src_len) * size,
+                              static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + (dest_end + 1) * size,
+                              (dest_arr_len - dest_end - 1) * size);
+        }
+        /* shrink size */
+        return dest_arr_len - (dest_len - src_len);
+    }
+    /* if two range overlaps, need alloca */
+    uint8_t need_alloca = (dest_arr == src_arr)
+                          && !(max(dest_start, dest_end) < min(src_start, src_end)
+                               || max(src_start, src_end) < min(dest_start, dest_end));
+    if (need_alloca) {
+        void* tmp = __builtin_alloca(src_arr_len * size);
+        __builtin_memcpy(tmp, src_arr, src_arr_len * size);
+        src_arr = tmp;
+    }
+    SliceIndex src_ind = src_start;
+    SliceIndex dest_ind = dest_start;
+    for (; (src_step > 0) ? (src_ind <= src_end) : (src_ind >= src_end); src_ind += src_step, dest_ind += dest_step) {
+        /* for constant optimization */
+        if (size == 1) {
+            __builtin_memcpy(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_ind, static_cast<uint8_t*>(src_arr) + src_ind, 1);
+        } else if (size == 4) {
+            __builtin_memcpy(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_ind * 4,
+                             static_cast<uint8_t*>(src_arr) + src_ind * 4, 4);
+        } else if (size == 8) {
+            __builtin_memcpy(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_ind * 8,
+                             static_cast<uint8_t*>(src_arr) + src_ind * 8, 8);
+        } else {
+            /* memcpy for var size, cannot overlap after previous alloca */
+            __builtin_memcpy(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_ind * size,
+                             static_cast<uint8_t*>(src_arr) + src_ind * size, size);
+        }
+    }
+    /* only dest_step == 1 can we shrink the dest list. */
+    /* size should be ensured prior to calling this function */
+    if (dest_step == 1 && dest_end >= dest_start) {
+        __builtin_memmove(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_ind * size,
+                          static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + (dest_end + 1) * size,
+                          (dest_arr_len - dest_end - 1) * size);
+        return dest_arr_len - (dest_end - dest_ind) - 1;
+    }
+    return dest_arr_len;
+}
+}  // extern "C"

nac3core/irrt/irrt/math.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+#pragma once
+
+namespace {
+// adapted from GNU Scientific Library: https://git.savannah.gnu.org/cgit/gsl.git/tree/sys/pow_int.c
+// need to make sure `exp >= 0` before calling this function
+template<typename T>
+T __nac3_int_exp_impl(T base, T exp) {
+    T res = 1;
+    /* repeated squaring method */
+    do {
+        if (exp & 1) {
+            res *= base; /* for n odd */
+        }
+        exp >>= 1;
+        base *= base;
+    } while (exp);
+    return res;
+}
+}  // namespace
+
+#define DEF_nac3_int_exp_(T)                   \
+    T __nac3_int_exp_##T(T base, T exp) {      \
+        return __nac3_int_exp_impl(base, exp); \
+    }
+
+extern "C" {
+
+// Putting semicolons here to make clang-format not reformat this into
+// a stair shape.
+DEF_nac3_int_exp_(int32_t);
+DEF_nac3_int_exp_(int64_t);
+DEF_nac3_int_exp_(uint32_t);
+DEF_nac3_int_exp_(uint64_t);
+
+int32_t __nac3_isinf(double x) {
+    return __builtin_isinf(x);
+}
+
+int32_t __nac3_isnan(double x) {
+    return __builtin_isnan(x);
+}
+
+double tgamma(double arg);
+
+double __nac3_gamma(double z) {
+    // Handling for denormals
+    //     | x                 | Python gamma(x) | C tgamma(x) |
+    // --- | ----------------- | --------------- | ----------- |
+    // (1) | nan               | nan             | nan         |
+    // (2) | -inf              | -inf            | inf         |
+    // (3) | inf               | inf             | inf         |
+    // (4) | 0.0               | inf             | inf         |
+    // (5) | {-1.0, -2.0, ...} | inf             | nan         |
+
+    // (1)-(3)
+    if (__builtin_isinf(z) || __builtin_isnan(z)) {
+        return z;
+    }
+
+    double v = tgamma(z);
+
+    // (4)-(5)
+    return __builtin_isinf(v) || __builtin_isnan(v) ? __builtin_inf() : v;
+}
+
+double lgamma(double arg);
+
+double __nac3_gammaln(double x) {
+    // libm's handling of value overflows differs from scipy:
+    // - scipy: gammaln(-inf) -> -inf
+    // - libm : lgamma(-inf) -> inf
+
+    if (__builtin_isinf(x)) {
+        return x;
+    }
+
+    return lgamma(x);
+}
+
+double j0(double x);
+
+double __nac3_j0(double x) {
+    // libm's handling of value overflows differs from scipy:
+    // - scipy: j0(inf) -> nan
+    // - libm : j0(inf) -> 0.0
+
+    if (__builtin_isinf(x)) {
+        return __builtin_nan("");
+    }
+
+    return j0(x);
+}
+}  // namespace

nac3core/irrt/irrt/math_util.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+#pragma once
+
+namespace {
+template<typename T>
+const T& max(const T& a, const T& b) {
+    return a > b ? a : b;
+}
+
+template<typename T>
+const T& min(const T& a, const T& b) {
+    return a > b ? b : a;
+}
+}  // namespace

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,151 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+
+// TODO: To be deleted since NDArray with strides is done.
+
+namespace {
+template<typename SizeT>
+SizeT __nac3_ndarray_calc_size_impl(const SizeT* list_data, SizeT list_len, SizeT begin_idx, SizeT end_idx) {
+    __builtin_assume(end_idx <= list_len);
+
+    SizeT num_elems = 1;
+    for (SizeT i = begin_idx; i < end_idx; ++i) {
+        SizeT val = list_data[i];
+        __builtin_assume(val > 0);
+        num_elems *= val;
+    }
+    return num_elems;
+}
+
+template<typename SizeT>
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(SizeT index, const SizeT* dims, SizeT num_dims, NDIndexInt* idxs) {
+    SizeT stride = 1;
+    for (SizeT dim = 0; dim < num_dims; dim++) {
+        SizeT i = num_dims - dim - 1;
+        __builtin_assume(dims[i] > 0);
+        idxs[i] = (index / stride) % dims[i];
+        stride *= dims[i];
+    }
+}
+
+template<typename SizeT>
+SizeT __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(const SizeT* dims,
+                                        SizeT num_dims,
+                                        const NDIndexInt* indices,
+                                        SizeT num_indices) {
+    SizeT idx = 0;
+    SizeT stride = 1;
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < num_dims; ++i) {
+        SizeT ri = num_dims - i - 1;
+        if (ri < num_indices) {
+            idx += stride * indices[ri];
+        }
+
+        __builtin_assume(dims[i] > 0);
+        stride *= dims[ri];
+    }
+    return idx;
+}
+
+template<typename SizeT>
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_impl(const SizeT* lhs_dims,
+                                        SizeT lhs_ndims,
+                                        const SizeT* rhs_dims,
+                                        SizeT rhs_ndims,
+                                        SizeT* out_dims) {
+    SizeT max_ndims = lhs_ndims > rhs_ndims ? lhs_ndims : rhs_ndims;
+
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < max_ndims; ++i) {
+        const SizeT* lhs_dim_sz = i < lhs_ndims ? &lhs_dims[lhs_ndims - i - 1] : nullptr;
+        const SizeT* rhs_dim_sz = i < rhs_ndims ? &rhs_dims[rhs_ndims - i - 1] : nullptr;
+        SizeT* out_dim = &out_dims[max_ndims - i - 1];
+
+        if (lhs_dim_sz == nullptr) {
+            *out_dim = *rhs_dim_sz;
+        } else if (rhs_dim_sz == nullptr) {
+            *out_dim = *lhs_dim_sz;
+        } else if (*lhs_dim_sz == 1) {
+            *out_dim = *rhs_dim_sz;
+        } else if (*rhs_dim_sz == 1) {
+            *out_dim = *lhs_dim_sz;
+        } else if (*lhs_dim_sz == *rhs_dim_sz) {
+            *out_dim = *lhs_dim_sz;
+        } else {
+            __builtin_unreachable();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+template<typename SizeT>
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx_impl(const SizeT* src_dims,
+                                            SizeT src_ndims,
+                                            const NDIndexInt* in_idx,
+                                            NDIndexInt* out_idx) {
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < src_ndims; ++i) {
+        SizeT src_i = src_ndims - i - 1;
+        out_idx[src_i] = src_dims[src_i] == 1 ? 0 : in_idx[src_i];
+    }
+}
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+uint32_t __nac3_ndarray_calc_size(const uint32_t* list_data, uint32_t list_len, uint32_t begin_idx, uint32_t end_idx) {
+    return __nac3_ndarray_calc_size_impl(list_data, list_len, begin_idx, end_idx);
+}
+
+uint64_t
+__nac3_ndarray_calc_size64(const uint64_t* list_data, uint64_t list_len, uint64_t begin_idx, uint64_t end_idx) {
+    return __nac3_ndarray_calc_size_impl(list_data, list_len, begin_idx, end_idx);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices(uint32_t index, const uint32_t* dims, uint32_t num_dims, NDIndexInt* idxs) {
+    __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(index, dims, num_dims, idxs);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices64(uint64_t index, const uint64_t* dims, uint64_t num_dims, NDIndexInt* idxs) {
+    __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(index, dims, num_dims, idxs);
+}
+
+uint32_t
+__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index(const uint32_t* dims, uint32_t num_dims, const NDIndexInt* indices, uint32_t num_indices) {
+    return __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(dims, num_dims, indices, num_indices);
+}
+
+uint64_t __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index64(const uint64_t* dims,
+                                        uint64_t num_dims,
+                                        const NDIndexInt* indices,
+                                        uint64_t num_indices) {
+    return __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(dims, num_dims, indices, num_indices);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast(const uint32_t* lhs_dims,
+                                   uint32_t lhs_ndims,
+                                   const uint32_t* rhs_dims,
+                                   uint32_t rhs_ndims,
+                                   uint32_t* out_dims) {
+    return __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_impl(lhs_dims, lhs_ndims, rhs_dims, rhs_ndims, out_dims);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast64(const uint64_t* lhs_dims,
+                                     uint64_t lhs_ndims,
+                                     const uint64_t* rhs_dims,
+                                     uint64_t rhs_ndims,
+                                     uint64_t* out_dims) {
+    return __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_impl(lhs_dims, lhs_ndims, rhs_dims, rhs_ndims, out_dims);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx(const uint32_t* src_dims,
+                                       uint32_t src_ndims,
+                                       const NDIndexInt* in_idx,
+                                       NDIndexInt* out_idx) {
+    __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx_impl(src_dims, src_ndims, in_idx, out_idx);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx64(const uint64_t* src_dims,
+                                         uint64_t src_ndims,
+                                         const NDIndexInt* in_idx,
+                                         NDIndexInt* out_idx) {
+    __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx_impl(src_dims, src_ndims, in_idx, out_idx);
+}
+}  // namespace

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,342 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/debug.hpp"
+#include "irrt/exception.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+namespace ndarray {
+namespace basic {
+/**
+ * @brief Assert that `shape` does not contain negative dimensions.
+ *
+ * @param ndims Number of dimensions in `shape`
+ * @param shape The shape to check on
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void assert_shape_no_negative(SizeT ndims, const SizeT* shape) {
+    for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++) {
+        if (shape[axis] < 0) {
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR,
+                            "negative dimensions are not allowed; axis {0} "
+                            "has dimension {1}",
+                            axis, shape[axis], NO_PARAM);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Assert that two shapes are the same in the context of writing output to an ndarray.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void assert_output_shape_same(SizeT ndarray_ndims,
+                              const SizeT* ndarray_shape,
+                              SizeT output_ndims,
+                              const SizeT* output_shape) {
+    if (ndarray_ndims != output_ndims) {
+        // There is no corresponding NumPy error message like this.
+        raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "Cannot write output of ndims {0} to an ndarray with ndims {1}",
+                        output_ndims, ndarray_ndims, NO_PARAM);
+    }
+
+    for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndarray_ndims; axis++) {
+        if (ndarray_shape[axis] != output_shape[axis]) {
+            // There is no corresponding NumPy error message like this.
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR,
+                            "Mismatched dimensions on axis {0}, output has "
+                            "dimension {1}, but destination ndarray has dimension {2}.",
+                            axis, output_shape[axis], ndarray_shape[axis]);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return the number of elements of an ndarray given its shape.
+ *
+ * @param ndims Number of dimensions in `shape`
+ * @param shape The shape of the ndarray
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+SizeT calc_size_from_shape(SizeT ndims, const SizeT* shape) {
+    SizeT size = 1;
+    for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++)
+        size *= shape[axis];
+    return size;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Compute the array indices of the `nth` (0-based) element of an ndarray given only its shape.
+ *
+ * @param ndims Number of elements in `shape` and `indices`
+ * @param shape The shape of the ndarray
+ * @param indices The returned indices indexing the ndarray with shape `shape`.
+ * @param nth The index of the element of interest.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void set_indices_by_nth(SizeT ndims, const SizeT* shape, SizeT* indices, SizeT nth) {
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT axis = ndims - i - 1;
+        SizeT dim = shape[axis];
+
+        indices[axis] = nth % dim;
+        nth /= dim;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return the number of elements of an `ndarray`
+ *
+ * This function corresponds to `<an_ndarray>.size`
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+SizeT size(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    return calc_size_from_shape(ndarray->ndims, ndarray->shape);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return of the number of its content of an `ndarray`.
+ *
+ * This function corresponds to `<an_ndarray>.nbytes`.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+SizeT nbytes(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    return size(ndarray) * ndarray->itemsize;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Get the `len()` of an ndarray, and asserts that `ndarray` is a sized object.
+ *
+ * This function corresponds to `<an_ndarray>.__len__`.
+ *
+ * @param dst_length The length.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+SizeT len(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    if (ndarray->ndims != 0) {
+        return ndarray->shape[0];
+    }
+
+    // numpy prohibits `__len__` on unsized objects
+    raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_TYPE_ERROR, "len() of unsized object", NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
+    __builtin_unreachable();
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return a boolean indicating if `ndarray` is (C-)contiguous.
+ *
+ * You may want to see ndarray's rules for C-contiguity:
+ * https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/df256d0d2f3bc6833699529824781c58f9c6e697/numpy/core/src/multiarray/flagsobject.c#L95C1-L99C45
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+bool is_c_contiguous(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    // References:
+    // - tinynumpy's implementation:
+    // https://github.com/wadetb/tinynumpy/blob/0d23d22e07062ffab2afa287374c7b366eebdda1/tinynumpy/tinynumpy.py#L102
+    // - ndarray's flags["C_CONTIGUOUS"]:
+    // https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.flags.html#numpy.ndarray.flags
+    // - ndarray's rules for C-contiguity:
+    // https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/df256d0d2f3bc6833699529824781c58f9c6e697/numpy/core/src/multiarray/flagsobject.c#L95C1-L99C45
+
+    // From
+    // https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/df256d0d2f3bc6833699529824781c58f9c6e697/numpy/core/src/multiarray/flagsobject.c#L95C1-L99C45:
+    //
+    // The traditional rule is that for an array to be flagged as C contiguous,
+    // the following must hold:
+    //
+    // strides[-1] == itemsize
+    // strides[i] == shape[i+1] * strides[i + 1]
+    // [...]
+    // According to these rules, a 0- or 1-dimensional array is either both
+    // C- and F-contiguous, or neither; and an array with 2+ dimensions
+    // can be C- or F- contiguous, or neither, but not both. Though there
+    // there are exceptions for arrays with zero or one item, in the first
+    // case the check is relaxed up to and including the first dimension
+    // with shape[i] == 0. In the second case `strides == itemsize` will
+    // can be true for all dimensions and both flags are set.
+
+    if (ndarray->ndims == 0) {
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    if (ndarray->strides[ndarray->ndims - 1] != ndarray->itemsize) {
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    for (SizeT i = 1; i < ndarray->ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT axis_i = ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
+        if (ndarray->strides[axis_i] != ndarray->shape[axis_i + 1] * ndarray->strides[axis_i + 1]) {
+            return false;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return true;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return the pointer to the element indexed by `indices` along the ndarray's axes.
+ *
+ * This function does no bound check.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void* get_pelement_by_indices(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, const SizeT* indices) {
+    void* element = ndarray->data;
+    for (SizeT dim_i = 0; dim_i < ndarray->ndims; dim_i++)
+        element = static_cast<uint8_t*>(element) + indices[dim_i] * ndarray->strides[dim_i];
+    return element;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return the pointer to the nth (0-based) element of `ndarray` in flattened view.
+ *
+ * This function does no bound check.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void* get_nth_pelement(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, SizeT nth) {
+    void* element = ndarray->data;
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndarray->ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT axis = ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
+        SizeT dim = ndarray->shape[axis];
+        element = static_cast<uint8_t*>(element) + ndarray->strides[axis] * (nth % dim);
+        nth /= dim;
+    }
+    return element;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Update the strides of an ndarray given an ndarray `shape` to be contiguous.
+ *
+ * You might want to read https://ajcr.net/stride-guide-part-1/.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void set_strides_by_shape(NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    SizeT stride_product = 1;
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndarray->ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT axis = ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
+        ndarray->strides[axis] = stride_product * ndarray->itemsize;
+        stride_product *= ndarray->shape[axis];
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Set an element in `ndarray`.
+ *
+ * @param pelement Pointer to the element in `ndarray` to be set.
+ * @param pvalue Pointer to the value `pelement` will be set to.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void set_pelement_value(NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, void* pelement, const void* pvalue) {
+    __builtin_memcpy(pelement, pvalue, ndarray->itemsize);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Copy data from one ndarray to another of the exact same size and itemsize.
+ *
+ * Both ndarrays will be viewed in their flatten views when copying the elements.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void copy_data(const NDArray<SizeT>* src_ndarray, NDArray<SizeT>* dst_ndarray) {
+    // TODO: Make this faster with memcpy when we see a contiguous segment.
+    // TODO: Handle overlapping.
+
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, src_ndarray->itemsize, dst_ndarray->itemsize);
+
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < size(src_ndarray); i++) {
+        auto src_element = ndarray::basic::get_nth_pelement(src_ndarray, i);
+        auto dst_element = ndarray::basic::get_nth_pelement(dst_ndarray, i);
+        ndarray::basic::set_pelement_value(dst_ndarray, dst_element, src_element);
+    }
+}
+}  // namespace basic
+}  // namespace ndarray
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+using namespace ndarray::basic;
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative(int32_t ndims, int32_t* shape) {
+    assert_shape_no_negative(ndims, shape);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative64(int64_t ndims, int64_t* shape) {
+    assert_shape_no_negative(ndims, shape);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same(int32_t ndarray_ndims,
+                                                  const int32_t* ndarray_shape,
+                                                  int32_t output_ndims,
+                                                  const int32_t* output_shape) {
+    assert_output_shape_same(ndarray_ndims, ndarray_shape, output_ndims, output_shape);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same64(int64_t ndarray_ndims,
+                                                    const int64_t* ndarray_shape,
+                                                    int64_t output_ndims,
+                                                    const int64_t* output_shape) {
+    assert_output_shape_same(ndarray_ndims, ndarray_shape, output_ndims, output_shape);
+}
+
+uint32_t __nac3_ndarray_size(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    return size(ndarray);
+}
+
+uint64_t __nac3_ndarray_size64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    return size(ndarray);
+}
+
+uint32_t __nac3_ndarray_nbytes(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    return nbytes(ndarray);
+}
+
+uint64_t __nac3_ndarray_nbytes64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    return nbytes(ndarray);
+}
+
+int32_t __nac3_ndarray_len(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    return len(ndarray);
+}
+
+int64_t __nac3_ndarray_len64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    return len(ndarray);
+}
+
+bool __nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    return is_c_contiguous(ndarray);
+}
+
+bool __nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    return is_c_contiguous(ndarray);
+}
+
+void* __nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement(const NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray, int32_t nth) {
+    return get_nth_pelement(ndarray, nth);
+}
+
+void* __nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement64(const NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray, int64_t nth) {
+    return get_nth_pelement(ndarray, nth);
+}
+
+void* __nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices(const NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray, int32_t* indices) {
+    return get_pelement_by_indices(ndarray, indices);
+}
+
+void* __nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices64(const NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray, int64_t* indices) {
+    return get_pelement_by_indices(ndarray, indices);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    set_strides_by_shape(ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    set_strides_by_shape(ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_copy_data(NDArray<int32_t>* src_ndarray, NDArray<int32_t>* dst_ndarray) {
+    copy_data(src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_copy_data64(NDArray<int64_t>* src_ndarray, NDArray<int64_t>* dst_ndarray) {
+    copy_data(src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/def.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+/**
+ * @brief The NDArray object
+ *
+ * Official numpy implementation:
+ * https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/735a477f0bc2b5b84d0e72d92f224bde78d4e069/doc/source/reference/c-api/types-and-structures.rst#pyarrayinterface
+ *
+ * Note that this implementation is based on `PyArrayInterface` rather of `PyArrayObject`. The
+ * difference between `PyArrayInterface` and `PyArrayObject` (relevant to our implementation) is
+ * that `PyArrayInterface` *has* `itemsize` and uses `void*` for its `data`, whereas `PyArrayObject`
+ * does not require `itemsize` (probably using `strides[-1]` instead) and uses `char*` for its
+ * `data`. There are also minor differences in the struct layout.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+struct NDArray {
+    /**
+     * @brief The number of bytes of a single element in `data`.
+     */
+    SizeT itemsize;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The number of dimensions of this shape.
+     */
+    SizeT ndims;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The NDArray shape, with length equal to `ndims`.
+     *
+     * Note that it may contain 0.
+     */
+    SizeT* shape;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Array strides, with length equal to `ndims`
+     *
+     * The stride values are in units of bytes, not number of elements.
+     *
+     * Note that `strides` can have negative values or contain 0.
+     */
+    SizeT* strides;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The underlying data this `ndarray` is pointing to.
+     */
+    void* data;
+};
+}  // namespace

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/indexing.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,220 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/exception.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+#include "irrt/range.hpp"
+#include "irrt/slice.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+typedef uint8_t NDIndexType;
+
+/**
+ * @brief A single element index
+ *
+ * `data` points to a `int32_t`.
+ */
+const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_SINGLE_ELEMENT = 0;
+
+/**
+ * @brief A slice index
+ *
+ * `data` points to a `Slice<int32_t>`.
+ */
+const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_SLICE = 1;
+
+/**
+ * @brief `np.newaxis` / `None`
+ *
+ * `data` is unused.
+ */
+const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_NEWAXIS = 2;
+
+/**
+ * @brief `Ellipsis` / `...`
+ *
+ * `data` is unused.
+ */
+const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_ELLIPSIS = 3;
+
+/**
+ * @brief An index used in ndarray indexing
+ *
+ * That is:
+ * ```
+ * my_ndarray[::-1, 3, ..., np.newaxis]
+ *            ^^^^  ^  ^^^  ^^^^^^^^^^ each of these is represented by an NDIndex.
+ * ```
+ */
+struct NDIndex {
+    /**
+     * @brief Enum tag to specify the type of index.
+     *
+     * Please see the comment of each enum constant.
+     */
+    NDIndexType type;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The accompanying data associated with `type`.
+     *
+     * Please see the comment of each enum constant.
+     */
+    uint8_t* data;
+};
+}  // namespace
+
+namespace {
+namespace ndarray {
+namespace indexing {
+/**
+ * @brief Perform ndarray "basic indexing" (https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.indexing.html#basic-indexing)
+ *
+ * This function is very similar to performing `dst_ndarray = src_ndarray[indices]` in Python.
+ *
+ * This function also does proper assertions on `indices` to check for out of bounds access and more.
+ *
+ * # Notes on `dst_ndarray`
+ * The caller is responsible for allocating space for the resulting ndarray.
+ * Here is what this function expects from `dst_ndarray` when called:
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->data` does not have to be initialized.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->itemsize` does not have to be initialized.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->ndims` must be initialized, and it must be equal to the expected `ndims` of the `dst_ndarray` after
+ *       indexing `src_ndarray` with `indices`.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->shape` must be allocated, through it can contain uninitialized values.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->strides` must be allocated, through it can contain uninitialized values.
+ * When this function call ends:
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->data` is set to `src_ndarray->data`.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->itemsize` is set to `src_ndarray->itemsize`.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->ndims` is unchanged.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->shape` is updated according to how `src_ndarray` is indexed.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->strides` is updated accordingly by how ndarray indexing works.
+ *
+ * @param indices indices to index `src_ndarray`, ordered in the same way you would write them in Python.
+ * @param src_ndarray The NDArray to be indexed.
+ * @param dst_ndarray The resulting NDArray after indexing. Further details in the comments above,
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void index(SizeT num_indices, const NDIndex* indices, const NDArray<SizeT>* src_ndarray, NDArray<SizeT>* dst_ndarray) {
+    // Validate `indices`.
+
+    // Expected value of `dst_ndarray->ndims`.
+    SizeT expected_dst_ndims = src_ndarray->ndims;
+    // To check for "too many indices for array: array is ?-dimensional, but ? were indexed"
+    SizeT num_indexed = 0;
+    // There may be ellipsis `...` in `indices`. There can only be 0 or 1 ellipsis.
+    SizeT num_ellipsis = 0;
+
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < num_indices; i++) {
+        if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SINGLE_ELEMENT) {
+            expected_dst_ndims--;
+            num_indexed++;
+        } else if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SLICE) {
+            num_indexed++;
+        } else if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_NEWAXIS) {
+            expected_dst_ndims++;
+        } else if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_ELLIPSIS) {
+            num_ellipsis++;
+            if (num_ellipsis > 1) {
+                raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_INDEX_ERROR, "an index can only have a single ellipsis ('...')", NO_PARAM,
+                                NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
+            }
+        } else {
+            __builtin_unreachable();
+        }
+    }
+
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, expected_dst_ndims, dst_ndarray->ndims);
+
+    if (src_ndarray->ndims - num_indexed < 0) {
+        raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_INDEX_ERROR,
+                        "too many indices for array: array is {0}-dimensional, "
+                        "but {1} were indexed",
+                        src_ndarray->ndims, num_indices, NO_PARAM);
+    }
+
+    dst_ndarray->data = src_ndarray->data;
+    dst_ndarray->itemsize = src_ndarray->itemsize;
+
+    // Reference code:
+    // https://github.com/wadetb/tinynumpy/blob/0d23d22e07062ffab2afa287374c7b366eebdda1/tinynumpy/tinynumpy.py#L652
+    SizeT src_axis = 0;
+    SizeT dst_axis = 0;
+
+    for (int32_t i = 0; i < num_indices; i++) {
+        const NDIndex* index = &indices[i];
+        if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SINGLE_ELEMENT) {
+            SizeT input = (SizeT) * ((int32_t*)index->data);
+
+            SizeT k = slice::resolve_index_in_length(src_ndarray->shape[src_axis], input);
+            if (k == -1) {
+                raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_INDEX_ERROR,
+                                "index {0} is out of bounds for axis {1} "
+                                "with size {2}",
+                                input, src_axis, src_ndarray->shape[src_axis]);
+            }
+
+            dst_ndarray->data = static_cast<uint8_t*>(dst_ndarray->data) + k * src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+
+            src_axis++;
+        } else if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SLICE) {
+            Slice<int32_t>* slice = (Slice<int32_t>*)index->data;
+
+            Range<int32_t> range = slice->indices_checked<SizeT>(src_ndarray->shape[src_axis]);
+
+            dst_ndarray->data = static_cast<uint8_t*>(dst_ndarray->data) + (SizeT)range.start * src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+            dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = ((SizeT)range.step) * src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+            dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = (SizeT)range.len<SizeT>();
+
+            dst_axis++;
+            src_axis++;
+        } else if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_NEWAXIS) {
+            dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = 0;
+            dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = 1;
+
+            dst_axis++;
+        } else if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_ELLIPSIS) {
+            // The number of ':' entries this '...' implies.
+            SizeT ellipsis_size = src_ndarray->ndims - num_indexed;
+
+            for (SizeT j = 0; j < ellipsis_size; j++) {
+                dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+                dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->shape[src_axis];
+
+                dst_axis++;
+                src_axis++;
+            }
+        } else {
+            __builtin_unreachable();
+        }
+    }
+
+    for (; dst_axis < dst_ndarray->ndims; dst_axis++, src_axis++) {
+        dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->shape[src_axis];
+        dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+    }
+
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, src_ndarray->ndims, src_axis);
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, dst_ndarray->ndims, dst_axis);
+}
+}  // namespace indexing
+}  // namespace ndarray
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+using namespace ndarray::indexing;
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_index(int32_t num_indices,
+                          NDIndex* indices,
+                          NDArray<int32_t>* src_ndarray,
+                          NDArray<int32_t>* dst_ndarray) {
+    index(num_indices, indices, src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_index64(int64_t num_indices,
+                            NDIndex* indices,
+                            NDArray<int64_t>* src_ndarray,
+                            NDArray<int64_t>* dst_ndarray) {
+    index(num_indices, indices, src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/iter.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+/**
+ * @brief Helper struct to enumerate through an ndarray *efficiently*.
+ *
+ * Example usage (in pseudo-code):
+ * ```
+ * // Suppose my_ndarray has been initialized, with shape [2, 3] and dtype `double`
+ * NDIter nditer;
+ * nditer.initialize(my_ndarray);
+ * while (nditer.has_element()) {
+ *    // This body is run 6 (= my_ndarray.size) times.
+ *
+ *    // [0, 0] -> [0, 1] -> [0, 2] -> [1, 0] -> [1, 1] -> [1, 2] -> end
+ *    print(nditer.indices);
+ *
+ *    // 0 -> 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5
+ *    print(nditer.nth);
+ *
+ *    // <1st element> -> <2nd element> -> ... -> <6th element> -> end
+ *    print(*((double *) nditer.element))
+ *
+ *    nditer.next(); // Go to next element.
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * Interesting cases:
+ * - If `my_ndarray.ndims` == 0, there is one iteration.
+ * - If `my_ndarray.shape` contains zeroes, there are no iterations.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+struct NDIter {
+    // Information about the ndarray being iterated over.
+    SizeT ndims;
+    SizeT* shape;
+    SizeT* strides;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The current indices.
+     *
+     * Must be allocated by the caller.
+     */
+    SizeT* indices;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The nth (0-based) index of the current indices.
+     *
+     * Initially this is 0.
+     */
+    SizeT nth;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Pointer to the current element.
+     *
+     * Initially this points to first element of the ndarray.
+     */
+    void* element;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Cache for the product of shape.
+     *
+     * Could be 0 if `shape` has 0s in it.
+     */
+    SizeT size;
+
+    void initialize(SizeT ndims, SizeT* shape, SizeT* strides, void* element, SizeT* indices) {
+        this->ndims = ndims;
+        this->shape = shape;
+        this->strides = strides;
+
+        this->indices = indices;
+        this->element = element;
+
+        // Compute size
+        this->size = 1;
+        for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++) {
+            this->size *= shape[i];
+        }
+
+        // `indices` starts on all 0s.
+        for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++)
+            indices[axis] = 0;
+        nth = 0;
+    }
+
+    void initialize_by_ndarray(NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, SizeT* indices) {
+        // NOTE: ndarray->data is pointing to the first element, and `NDIter`'s `element` should also point to the first
+        // element as well.
+        this->initialize(ndarray->ndims, ndarray->shape, ndarray->strides, ndarray->data, indices);
+    }
+
+    // Is the current iteration valid?
+    // If true, then `element`, `indices` and `nth` contain details about the current element.
+    bool has_element() { return nth < size; }
+
+    // Go to the next element.
+    void next() {
+        for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++) {
+            SizeT axis = ndims - i - 1;
+            indices[axis]++;
+            if (indices[axis] >= shape[axis]) {
+                indices[axis] = 0;
+
+                // TODO: There is something called backstrides to speedup iteration.
+                // See https://ajcr.net/stride-guide-part-1/, and
+                // https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy-1.13.0/reference/c-api.types-and-structures.html#c.PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.backstrides.
+                element = static_cast<void*>(reinterpret_cast<uint8_t*>(element) - strides[axis] * (shape[axis] - 1));
+            } else {
+                element = static_cast<void*>(reinterpret_cast<uint8_t*>(element) + strides[axis]);
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        nth++;
+    }
+};
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+void __nac3_nditer_initialize(NDIter<int32_t>* iter, NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray, int32_t* indices) {
+    iter->initialize_by_ndarray(ndarray, indices);
+}
+
+void __nac3_nditer_initialize64(NDIter<int64_t>* iter, NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray, int64_t* indices) {
+    iter->initialize_by_ndarray(ndarray, indices);
+}
+
+bool __nac3_nditer_has_element(NDIter<int32_t>* iter) {
+    return iter->has_element();
+}
+
+bool __nac3_nditer_has_element64(NDIter<int64_t>* iter) {
+    return iter->has_element();
+}
+
+void __nac3_nditer_next(NDIter<int32_t>* iter) {
+    iter->next();
+}
+
+void __nac3_nditer_next64(NDIter<int64_t>* iter) {
+    iter->next();
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/range.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/debug.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+namespace range {
+template<typename T>
+T len(T start, T stop, T step) {
+    // Reference:
+    // https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/9dbd12375561a393eaec4b21ee4ac568a407cdb0/Objects/rangeobject.c#L933
+    if (step > 0 && start < stop)
+        return 1 + (stop - 1 - start) / step;
+    else if (step < 0 && start > stop)
+        return 1 + (start - 1 - stop) / (-step);
+    else
+        return 0;
+}
+}  // namespace range
+
+/**
+ * @brief A Python range.
+ */
+template<typename T>
+struct Range {
+    T start;
+    T stop;
+    T step;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Calculate the `len()` of this range.
+     */
+    template<typename SizeT>
+    T len() {
+        debug_assert(SizeT, step != 0);
+        return range::len(start, stop, step);
+    }
+};
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+using namespace range;
+
+SliceIndex __nac3_range_slice_len(const SliceIndex start, const SliceIndex end, const SliceIndex step) {
+    return len(start, end, step);
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/slice.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,156 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/debug.hpp"
+#include "irrt/exception.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/math_util.hpp"
+#include "irrt/range.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+namespace slice {
+/**
+ * @brief Resolve a possibly negative index in a list of a known length.
+ *
+ * Returns -1 if the resolved index is out of the list's bounds.
+ */
+template<typename T>
+T resolve_index_in_length(T length, T index) {
+    T resolved = index < 0 ? length + index : index;
+    if (0 <= resolved && resolved < length) {
+        return resolved;
+    } else {
+        return -1;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Resolve a slice as a range.
+ *
+ * This is equivalent to `range(*slice(start, stop, step).indices(length))` in Python.
+ */
+template<typename T>
+void indices(bool start_defined,
+             T start,
+             bool stop_defined,
+             T stop,
+             bool step_defined,
+             T step,
+             T length,
+             T* range_start,
+             T* range_stop,
+             T* range_step) {
+    // Reference: https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Objects/sliceobject.c#L388
+    *range_step = step_defined ? step : 1;
+    bool step_is_negative = *range_step < 0;
+
+    T lower, upper;
+    if (step_is_negative) {
+        lower = -1;
+        upper = length - 1;
+    } else {
+        lower = 0;
+        upper = length;
+    }
+
+    if (start_defined) {
+        *range_start = start < 0 ? max(lower, start + length) : min(upper, start);
+    } else {
+        *range_start = step_is_negative ? upper : lower;
+    }
+
+    if (stop_defined) {
+        *range_stop = stop < 0 ? max(lower, stop + length) : min(upper, stop);
+    } else {
+        *range_stop = step_is_negative ? lower : upper;
+    }
+}
+}  // namespace slice
+
+/**
+ * @brief A Python-like slice with **unresolved** indices.
+ */
+template<typename T>
+struct Slice {
+    bool start_defined;
+    T start;
+
+    bool stop_defined;
+    T stop;
+
+    bool step_defined;
+    T step;
+
+    Slice() { this->reset(); }
+
+    void reset() {
+        this->start_defined = false;
+        this->stop_defined = false;
+        this->step_defined = false;
+    }
+
+    void set_start(T start) {
+        this->start_defined = true;
+        this->start = start;
+    }
+
+    void set_stop(T stop) {
+        this->stop_defined = true;
+        this->stop = stop;
+    }
+
+    void set_step(T step) {
+        this->step_defined = true;
+        this->step = step;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Resolve this slice as a range.
+     *
+     * In Python, this would be `range(*slice(start, stop, step).indices(length))`.
+     */
+    template<typename SizeT>
+    Range<T> indices(T length) {
+        // Reference:
+        // https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Objects/sliceobject.c#L388
+        debug_assert(SizeT, length >= 0);
+
+        Range<T> result;
+        slice::indices(start_defined, start, stop_defined, stop, step_defined, step, length, &result.start,
+                       &result.stop, &result.step);
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Like `.indices()` but with assertions.
+     */
+    template<typename SizeT>
+    Range<T> indices_checked(T length) {
+        // TODO: Switch to `SizeT length`
+
+        if (length < 0) {
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "length should not be negative, got {0}", length, NO_PARAM,
+                            NO_PARAM);
+        }
+
+        if (this->step_defined && this->step == 0) {
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "slice step cannot be zero", NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
+        }
+
+        return this->indices<SizeT>(length);
+    }
+};
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+SliceIndex __nac3_slice_index_bound(SliceIndex i, const SliceIndex len) {
+    if (i < 0) {
+        i = len + i;
+    }
+    if (i < 0) {
+        return 0;
+    } else if (i > len) {
+        return len;
+    }
+    return i;
+}
+}

nac3core/nac3core_derive/Cargo.toml

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+[package]
+name = "nac3core_derive"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2021"
+
+[lib]
+proc-macro = true
+
+[[test]]
+name = "structfields_tests"
+path = "tests/structfields_test.rs"
+
+[dev-dependencies]
+nac3core = { path = ".." }
+trybuild = { version = "1.0", features = ["diff"] }
+
+[dependencies]
+proc-macro2 = "1.0"
+proc-macro-error = "1.0"
+syn = "2.0"
+quote = "1.0"

nac3core/nac3core_derive/src/lib.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,320 @@
+use proc_macro::TokenStream;
+use proc_macro_error::{abort, proc_macro_error};
+use quote::quote;
+use syn::{
+    parse_macro_input, spanned::Spanned, Data, DataStruct, Expr, ExprField, ExprMethodCall,
+    ExprPath, GenericArgument, Ident, LitStr, Path, PathArguments, Type, TypePath,
+};
+
+/// Extracts all generic arguments of a [`Type`] into a [`Vec`].
+///
+/// Returns [`Some`] of a possibly-empty [`Vec`] if the path of `ty` matches with
+/// `expected_ty_name`, otherwise returns [`None`].
+fn extract_generic_args(expected_ty_name: &'static str, ty: &Type) -> Option<Vec<GenericArgument>> {
+    let Type::Path(TypePath { qself: None, path, .. }) = ty else {
+        return None;
+    };
+
+    let segments = &path.segments;
+    if segments.len() != 1 {
+        return None;
+    };
+
+    let segment = segments.iter().next().unwrap();
+    if segment.ident != expected_ty_name {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let PathArguments::AngleBracketed(path_args) = &segment.arguments else {
+        return Some(Vec::new());
+    };
+    let args = &path_args.args;
+
+    Some(args.iter().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>())
+}
+
+/// Maps a `path` matching one of the `target_idents` into the `replacement` [`Ident`].
+fn map_path_to_ident(path: &Path, target_idents: &[&str], replacement: &str) -> Option<Ident> {
+    path.require_ident()
+        .ok()
+        .filter(|ident| target_idents.iter().any(|target| ident == target))
+        .map(|ident| Ident::new(replacement, ident.span()))
+}
+
+/// Extracts the left-hand side of a dot-expression.
+fn extract_dot_operand(expr: &Expr) -> Option<&Expr> {
+    match expr {
+        Expr::MethodCall(ExprMethodCall { receiver: operand, .. })
+        | Expr::Field(ExprField { base: operand, .. }) => Some(operand),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Replaces the top-level receiver of a dot-expression with an [`Ident`], returning `Some(&mut expr)` if the
+/// replacement is performed.
+///
+/// The top-level receiver is the left-most receiver expression, e.g. the top-level receiver of `a.b.c.foo()` is `a`.
+fn replace_top_level_receiver(expr: &mut Expr, ident: Ident) -> Option<&mut Expr> {
+    if let Expr::MethodCall(ExprMethodCall { receiver: operand, .. })
+    | Expr::Field(ExprField { base: operand, .. }) = expr
+    {
+        return if extract_dot_operand(operand).is_some() {
+            if replace_top_level_receiver(operand, ident).is_some() {
+                Some(expr)
+            } else {
+                None
+            }
+        } else {
+            *operand = Box::new(Expr::Path(ExprPath {
+                attrs: Vec::default(),
+                qself: None,
+                path: ident.into(),
+            }));
+
+            Some(expr)
+        };
+    }
+
+    None
+}
+
+/// Iterates all operands to the left-hand side of the `.` of an [expression][`Expr`], i.e. the container operand of all
+/// [`Expr::Field`] and the receiver operand of all [`Expr::MethodCall`].
+///
+/// The iterator will return the operand expressions in reverse order of appearance. For example, `a.b.c.func()` will
+/// return `vec![c, b, a]`.
+fn iter_dot_operands(expr: &Expr) -> impl Iterator<Item = &Expr> {
+    let mut o = extract_dot_operand(expr);
+
+    std::iter::from_fn(move || {
+        let this = o;
+        o = o.as_ref().and_then(|o| extract_dot_operand(o));
+
+        this
+    })
+}
+
+/// Normalizes a value expression for use when creating an instance of this structure, returning a
+/// [`proc_macro2::TokenStream`] of tokens representing the normalized expression.
+fn normalize_value_expr(expr: &Expr) -> proc_macro2::TokenStream {
+    match &expr {
+        Expr::Path(ExprPath { qself: None, path, .. }) => {
+            if let Some(ident) = map_path_to_ident(path, &["usize", "size_t"], "llvm_usize") {
+                quote! { #ident }
+            } else {
+                abort!(
+                    path,
+                    format!(
+                        "Expected one of `size_t`, `usize`, or an implicit call expression in #[value_type(...)], found {}", 
+                        quote!(#expr).to_string(),
+                    )
+                )
+            }
+        }
+
+        Expr::Call(_) => {
+            quote! { ctx.#expr }
+        }
+
+        Expr::MethodCall(_) => {
+            let base_receiver = iter_dot_operands(expr).last();
+
+            match base_receiver {
+                // `usize.{...}`, `size_t.{...}` -> Rewrite the identifiers to `llvm_usize`
+                Some(Expr::Path(ExprPath { qself: None, path, .. }))
+                    if map_path_to_ident(path, &["usize", "size_t"], "llvm_usize").is_some() =>
+                {
+                    let ident =
+                        map_path_to_ident(path, &["usize", "size_t"], "llvm_usize").unwrap();
+
+                    let mut expr = expr.clone();
+                    let expr = replace_top_level_receiver(&mut expr, ident).unwrap();
+
+                    quote!(#expr)
+                }
+
+                // `ctx.{...}`, `context.{...}` -> Rewrite the identifiers to `ctx`
+                Some(Expr::Path(ExprPath { qself: None, path, .. }))
+                    if map_path_to_ident(path, &["ctx", "context"], "ctx").is_some() =>
+                {
+                    let ident = map_path_to_ident(path, &["ctx", "context"], "ctx").unwrap();
+
+                    let mut expr = expr.clone();
+                    let expr = replace_top_level_receiver(&mut expr, ident).unwrap();
+
+                    quote!(#expr)
+                }
+
+                // No reserved identifier prefix -> Prepend `ctx.` to the entire expression
+                _ => quote! { ctx.#expr },
+            }
+        }
+
+        _ => {
+            abort!(
+                expr,
+                format!(
+                    "Expected one of `size_t`, `usize`, or an implicit call expression in #[value_type(...)], found {}", 
+                    quote!(#expr).to_string(),
+                )
+            )
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Derives an implementation of `codegen::types::structure::StructFields`.
+///
+/// The benefit of using `#[derive(StructFields)]` is that all index- or order-dependent logic required by
+/// `impl StructFields` is automatically generated by this implementation, including the field index as required by
+/// `StructField::new` and the fields as returned by `StructFields::to_vec`.
+///
+/// # Prerequisites
+///
+/// In order to derive from [`StructFields`], you must implement (or derive) [`Eq`] and [`Copy`] as required by
+/// `StructFields`.
+///
+/// Moreover, `#[derive(StructFields)]` can only be used for `struct`s with named fields, and may only contain fields
+/// with either `StructField` or [`PhantomData`] types.
+///
+/// # Attributes for [`StructFields`]
+///
+/// Each `StructField` field must be declared with the `#[value_type(...)]` attribute. The argument of `value_type`
+/// accepts one of the following:
+///
+/// - An expression returning an instance of `inkwell::types::BasicType` (with or without the receiver `ctx`/`context`).
+/// For example, `context.i8_type()`, `ctx.i8_type()`, and `i8_type()` all refer to `i8`.
+/// - The reserved identifiers `usize` and `size_t` referring to an `inkwell::types::IntType` of the platform-dependent
+/// integer size. `usize` and `size_t` can also be used as the receiver to other method calls, e.g.
+/// `usize.array_type(3)`.
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// The following is an example of an LLVM slice implemented using `#[derive(StructFields)]`.
+///
+/// ```rust,ignore
+/// use nac3core::{
+///     codegen::types::structure::StructField,
+///     inkwell::{
+///         values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+///         AddressSpace,
+///     },
+/// };
+/// use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+///
+/// // All classes that implement StructFields must also implement Eq and Copy
+/// #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+/// pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
+///     // Declares ptr have a value type of i8*
+///     //
+///     // Can also be written as `ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(...)` or `context.i8_type().ptr_type(...)`
+///     #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+///     ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+///
+///     // Declares len have a value type of usize, depending on the target compilation platform
+///     #[value_type(usize)]
+///     len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+/// }
+/// ```
+#[proc_macro_derive(StructFields, attributes(value_type))]
+#[proc_macro_error]
+pub fn derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
+    let input = parse_macro_input!(input as syn::DeriveInput);
+    let ident = &input.ident;
+
+    let Data::Struct(DataStruct { fields, .. }) = &input.data else {
+        abort!(input, "Only structs with named fields are supported");
+    };
+    if let Err(err_span) =
+        fields
+            .iter()
+            .try_for_each(|field| if field.ident.is_some() { Ok(()) } else { Err(field.span()) })
+    {
+        abort!(err_span, "Only structs with named fields are supported");
+    };
+
+    // Check if struct<'ctx>
+    if input.generics.params.len() != 1 {
+        abort!(input.generics, "Expected exactly 1 generic parameter")
+    }
+
+    let phantom_info = fields
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|field| extract_generic_args("PhantomData", &field.ty).is_some())
+        .map(|field| field.ident.as_ref().unwrap())
+        .cloned()
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let field_info = fields
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|field| extract_generic_args("PhantomData", &field.ty).is_none())
+        .map(|field| {
+            let ident = field.ident.as_ref().unwrap();
+            let ty = &field.ty;
+
+            let Some(_) = extract_generic_args("StructField", ty) else {
+                abort!(field, "Only StructField and PhantomData are allowed")
+            };
+
+            let attrs = &field.attrs;
+            let Some(value_type_attr) =
+                attrs.iter().find(|attr| attr.path().is_ident("value_type"))
+            else {
+                abort!(field, "Expected #[value_type(...)] attribute for field");
+            };
+
+            let Ok(value_type_expr) = value_type_attr.parse_args::<Expr>() else {
+                abort!(value_type_attr, "Expected expression in #[value_type(...)]");
+            };
+
+            let value_expr_toks = normalize_value_expr(&value_type_expr);
+
+            (ident.clone(), value_expr_toks)
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    // `<*>::new` impl of `StructField` and `PhantomData` for `StructFields::new`
+    let phantoms_create = phantom_info
+        .iter()
+        .map(|id| quote! { #id: ::std::marker::PhantomData })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    let fields_create = field_info
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(id, ty)| {
+            let id_lit = LitStr::new(&id.to_string(), id.span());
+            quote! {
+                #id: ::nac3core::codegen::types::structure::StructField::create(
+                    &mut counter,
+                    #id_lit,
+                    #ty,
+                )
+            }
+        })
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    // `.into()` impl of `StructField` for `StructFields::to_vec`
+    let fields_into =
+        field_info.iter().map(|(id, _)| quote! { self.#id.into() }).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+    let impl_block = quote! {
+        impl<'ctx> ::nac3core::codegen::types::structure::StructFields<'ctx> for #ident<'ctx> {
+            fn new(ctx: impl ::nac3core::inkwell::context::AsContextRef<'ctx>, llvm_usize: ::nac3core::inkwell::types::IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+                let ctx = unsafe { ::nac3core::inkwell::context::ContextRef::new(ctx.as_ctx_ref()) };
+
+                let mut counter = ::nac3core::codegen::types::structure::FieldIndexCounter::default();
+
+                #ident {
+                    #(#fields_create),*
+                    #(#phantoms_create),*
+                }
+            }
+
+            fn to_vec(&self) -> ::std::vec::Vec<(&'static str, ::nac3core::inkwell::types::BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)> {
+                vec![
+                    #(#fields_into),*
+                ]
+            }
+        }
+    };
+
+    impl_block.into()
+}

nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_empty.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+use std::marker::PhantomData;
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct EmptyValue<'ctx> {
+    _phantom: PhantomData<&'ctx ()>,
+}
+
+fn main() {}

nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_ndarray.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+use nac3core::{
+    codegen::types::structure::StructField,
+    inkwell::{
+        values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+        AddressSpace,
+    },
+};
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    ndims: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    shape: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    data: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+fn main() {}

nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+use nac3core::{
+    codegen::types::structure::StructField,
+    inkwell::{
+        values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+        AddressSpace,
+    },
+};
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
+    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+fn main() {}

nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice_context.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+use nac3core::{
+    codegen::types::structure::StructField,
+    inkwell::{
+        values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+        AddressSpace,
+    },
+};
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
+    #[value_type(context.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+fn main() {}

nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice_ctx.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+use nac3core::{
+    codegen::types::structure::StructField,
+    inkwell::{
+        values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+        AddressSpace,
+    },
+};
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
+    #[value_type(ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+fn main() {}

nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice_sizet.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+use nac3core::{
+    codegen::types::structure::StructField,
+    inkwell::{
+        values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+        AddressSpace,
+    },
+};
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
+    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(size_t)]
+    len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+fn main() {}

nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_test.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+#[test]
+fn test_parse_empty() {
+    let t = trybuild::TestCases::new();
+    t.pass("tests/structfields_empty.rs");
+    t.pass("tests/structfields_slice.rs");
+    t.pass("tests/structfields_slice_ctx.rs");
+    t.pass("tests/structfields_slice_context.rs");
+    t.pass("tests/structfields_slice_sizet.rs");
+    t.pass("tests/structfields_ndarray.rs");
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/concrete_type.rs

@@ -1,15 +1,20 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use indexmap::IndexMap;
+
+use nac3parser::ast::StrRef;
+
 use crate::{
     symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
     toplevel::DefinitionId,
     typecheck::{
         type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore,
-        typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier},
+        typedef::{
+            into_var_map, FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, TypeVar, TypeVarId, Unifier,
+        },
     },
 };
 
-use nac3parser::ast::StrRef;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-
 pub struct ConcreteTypeStore {
     store: Vec<ConcreteTypeEnum>,
 }
@@ -22,6 +27,7 @@ pub struct ConcreteFuncArg {
     pub name: StrRef,
     pub ty: ConcreteType,
     pub default_value: Option<SymbolValue>,
+    pub is_vararg: bool,
 }
 
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
@@ -43,14 +49,12 @@ pub enum ConcreteTypeEnum {
     TPrimitive(Primitive),
     TTuple {
         ty: Vec<ConcreteType>,
-    },
+        is_vararg_ctx: bool,
-    TList {
-        ty: ConcreteType,
     },
     TObj {
         obj_id: DefinitionId,
         fields: HashMap<StrRef, (ConcreteType, bool)>,
-        params: HashMap<u32, ConcreteType>,
+        params: IndexMap<TypeVarId, ConcreteType>,
     },
     TVirtual {
         ty: ConcreteType,
@@ -58,11 +62,10 @@ pub enum ConcreteTypeEnum {
     TFunc {
         args: Vec<ConcreteFuncArg>,
         ret: ConcreteType,
-        vars: HashMap<u32, ConcreteType>,
+        vars: HashMap<TypeVarId, ConcreteType>,
     },
-    TConstant {
+    TLiteral {
-        value: SymbolValue,
+        values: Vec<SymbolValue>,
-        ty: ConcreteType,
     },
 }
 
@@ -103,8 +106,16 @@ impl ConcreteTypeStore {
                 .iter()
                 .map(|arg| ConcreteFuncArg {
                     name: arg.name,
-                    ty: self.from_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, arg.ty, cache),
+                    ty: if arg.is_vararg {
+                        let tuple_ty = unifier
+                            .add_ty(TypeEnum::TTuple { ty: vec![arg.ty], is_vararg_ctx: true });
+
+                        self.from_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, tuple_ty, cache)
+                    } else {
+                        self.from_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, arg.ty, cache)
+                    },
                     default_value: arg.default_value.clone(),
+                    is_vararg: arg.is_vararg,
                 })
                 .collect(),
             ret: self.from_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, signature.ret, cache),
@@ -159,14 +170,12 @@ impl ConcreteTypeStore {
             cache.insert(ty, None);
             let ty_enum = unifier.get_ty(ty);
             let result = match &*ty_enum {
-                TypeEnum::TTuple { ty } => ConcreteTypeEnum::TTuple {
+                TypeEnum::TTuple { ty, is_vararg_ctx } => ConcreteTypeEnum::TTuple {
                     ty: ty
                         .iter()
                         .map(|t| self.from_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *t, cache))
                         .collect(),
-                },
+                    is_vararg_ctx: *is_vararg_ctx,
-                TypeEnum::TList { ty } => ConcreteTypeEnum::TList {
-                    ty: self.from_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *ty, cache),
                 },
                 TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, fields, params } => ConcreteTypeEnum::TObj {
                     obj_id: *obj_id,
@@ -202,10 +211,9 @@ impl ConcreteTypeStore {
                 TypeEnum::TFunc(signature) => {
                     self.from_signature(unifier, primitives, signature, cache)
                 }
-                TypeEnum::TConstant { value, ty, .. } => ConcreteTypeEnum::TConstant {
+                TypeEnum::TLiteral { values, .. } => {
-                    value: value.clone(),
+                    ConcreteTypeEnum::TLiteral { values: values.clone() }
-                    ty: self.from_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *ty, cache),
+                }
-                },
                 _ => unreachable!("{:?}", ty_enum.get_type_name()),
             };
             let index = if let Some(ConcreteType(index)) = cache.get(&ty).unwrap() {
@@ -231,7 +239,7 @@ impl ConcreteTypeStore {
             return if let Some(ty) = ty {
                 *ty
             } else {
-                *ty = Some(unifier.get_dummy_var().0);
+                *ty = Some(unifier.get_dummy_var().ty);
                 ty.unwrap()
             };
         }
@@ -253,15 +261,13 @@ impl ConcreteTypeStore {
                 *cache.get_mut(&cty).unwrap() = Some(ty);
                 return ty;
             }
-            ConcreteTypeEnum::TTuple { ty } => TypeEnum::TTuple {
+            ConcreteTypeEnum::TTuple { ty, is_vararg_ctx } => TypeEnum::TTuple {
                 ty: ty
                     .iter()
                     .map(|cty| self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *cty, cache))
                     .collect(),
+                is_vararg_ctx: *is_vararg_ctx,
             },
-            ConcreteTypeEnum::TList { ty } => {
-                TypeEnum::TList { ty: self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *ty, cache) }
-            }
             ConcreteTypeEnum::TVirtual { ty } => {
                 TypeEnum::TVirtual { ty: self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *ty, cache) }
             }
@@ -273,10 +279,10 @@ impl ConcreteTypeStore {
                         (*name, (self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, cty.0, cache), cty.1))
                     })
                     .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
-                params: params
+                params: into_var_map(params.iter().map(|(&id, cty)| {
-                    .iter()
+                    let ty = self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *cty, cache);
-                    .map(|(id, cty)| (*id, self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *cty, cache)))
+                    TypeVar { id, ty }
-                    .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+                })),
             },
             ConcreteTypeEnum::TFunc { args, ret, vars } => TypeEnum::TFunc(FunSignature {
                 args: args
@@ -285,18 +291,17 @@ impl ConcreteTypeStore {
                         name: arg.name,
                         ty: self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, arg.ty, cache),
                         default_value: arg.default_value.clone(),
+                        is_vararg: false,
                     })
                     .collect(),
                 ret: self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *ret, cache),
-                vars: vars
+                vars: into_var_map(vars.iter().map(|(&id, cty)| {
-                    .iter()
+                    let ty = self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *cty, cache);
-                    .map(|(id, cty)| (*id, self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *cty, cache)))
+                    TypeVar { id, ty }
-                    .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
+                })),
             }),
-            ConcreteTypeEnum::TConstant { value, ty } => TypeEnum::TConstant {
+            ConcreteTypeEnum::TLiteral { values, .. } => {
-                value: value.clone(),
+                TypeEnum::TLiteral { values: values.clone(), loc: None }
-                ty: self.to_unifier_type(unifier, primitives, *ty, cache),
-                loc: None,
             }
         };
         let result = unifier.add_ty(result);

nac3core/src/codegen/extern_fns.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,193 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue},
+};
+use itertools::Either;
+
+use super::CodeGenContext;
+
+/// Macro to generate extern function
+/// Both function return type and function parameter type are `FloatValue`
+///
+/// Arguments:
+/// * `unary/binary`: Whether the extern function requires one (unary) or two (binary) operands
+/// * `$fn_name:ident`: The identifier of the rust function to be generated
+/// * `$extern_fn:literal`: Name of underlying extern function
+///
+/// Optional Arguments:
+/// * `$(,$attributes:literal)*)`: Attributes linked with the extern function.
+///   The default attributes are "mustprogress", "nofree", "nounwind", "willreturn", and "writeonly".
+///   These will be used unless other attributes are specified
+/// * `$(,$args:ident)*`: Operands of the extern function
+///   The data type of these operands will be set to `FloatValue`
+///  
+macro_rules! generate_extern_fn {
+    ("unary", $fn_name:ident, $extern_fn:literal) => {
+        generate_extern_fn!($fn_name, $extern_fn, arg, "mustprogress", "nofree", "nounwind", "willreturn", "writeonly");
+    };
+    ("unary", $fn_name:ident, $extern_fn:literal $(,$attributes:literal)*) => {
+        generate_extern_fn!($fn_name, $extern_fn, arg $(,$attributes)*);
+    };
+    ("binary", $fn_name:ident, $extern_fn:literal) => {
+        generate_extern_fn!($fn_name, $extern_fn, arg1, arg2, "mustprogress", "nofree", "nounwind", "willreturn", "writeonly");
+    };
+    ("binary", $fn_name:ident, $extern_fn:literal $(,$attributes:literal)*) => {
+        generate_extern_fn!($fn_name, $extern_fn, arg1, arg2 $(,$attributes)*);
+    };
+    ($fn_name:ident, $extern_fn:literal $(,$args:ident)* $(,$attributes:literal)*) => {
+        #[doc = concat!("Invokes the [`", stringify!($extern_fn), "`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/numeric/math/", stringify!($llvm_name), ") function." )]
+        pub fn $fn_name<'ctx>(
+            ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>
+            $(,$args: FloatValue<'ctx>)*,
+            name: Option<&str>,
+        ) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
+            const FN_NAME: &str = $extern_fn;
+
+            let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
+            $(debug_assert_eq!($args.get_type(), llvm_f64);)*
+
+            let extern_fn = ctx.module.get_function(FN_NAME).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[$($args.get_type().into()),*], false);
+                let func = ctx.module.add_function(FN_NAME, fn_type, None);
+                for attr in [$($attributes),*] {
+                    func.add_attribute(
+                        AttributeLoc::Function,
+                        ctx.ctx.create_enum_attribute(Attribute::get_named_enum_kind_id(attr), 0),
+                    );
+                }
+                func
+            });
+
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_call(extern_fn, &[$($args.into()),*], name.unwrap_or_default())
+                .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+                .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
+                .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_tan, "tan");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_asin, "asin");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_acos, "acos");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_atan, "atan");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_sinh, "sinh");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_cosh, "cosh");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_tanh, "tanh");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_asinh, "asinh");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_acosh, "acosh");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_atanh, "atanh");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_expm1, "expm1");
+generate_extern_fn!(
+    "unary",
+    call_cbrt,
+    "cbrt",
+    "mustprogress",
+    "nofree",
+    "nosync",
+    "nounwind",
+    "readonly",
+    "willreturn"
+);
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_erf, "erf", "nounwind");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_erfc, "erfc", "nounwind");
+generate_extern_fn!("unary", call_j1, "j1", "nounwind");
+
+generate_extern_fn!("binary", call_atan2, "atan2");
+generate_extern_fn!("binary", call_hypot, "hypot", "nounwind");
+generate_extern_fn!("binary", call_nextafter, "nextafter", "nounwind");
+
+/// Invokes the [`ldexp`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/numeric/math/ldexp) function.
+pub fn call_ldexp<'ctx>(
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    arg: FloatValue<'ctx>,
+    exp: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&str>,
+) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
+    const FN_NAME: &str = "ldexp";
+
+    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
+    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+    debug_assert_eq!(arg.get_type(), llvm_f64);
+    debug_assert_eq!(exp.get_type(), llvm_i32);
+
+    let extern_fn = ctx.module.get_function(FN_NAME).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into(), llvm_i32.into()], false);
+        let func = ctx.module.add_function(FN_NAME, fn_type, None);
+        for attr in ["mustprogress", "nofree", "nounwind", "willreturn"] {
+            func.add_attribute(
+                AttributeLoc::Function,
+                ctx.ctx.create_enum_attribute(Attribute::get_named_enum_kind_id(attr), 0),
+            );
+        }
+
+        func
+    });
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(extern_fn, &[arg.into(), exp.into()], name.unwrap_or_default())
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Macro to generate `np_linalg` and `sp_linalg` functions
+/// The function takes as input `NDArray` and returns ()
+///
+/// Arguments:
+/// * `$fn_name:ident`: The identifier of the rust function to be generated
+/// * `$extern_fn:literal`: Name of underlying extern function
+/// * (2/3/4): Number of `NDArray` that function takes as input
+///
+/// Note:
+/// The operands and resulting `NDArray` are both passed as input to the funcion
+/// It is the responsibility of caller to ensure that output `NDArray` is properly allocated on stack
+/// The function changes the content of the output `NDArray` in-place
+macro_rules! generate_linalg_extern_fn {
+    ($fn_name:ident, $extern_fn:literal, 2) => {
+        generate_linalg_extern_fn!($fn_name, $extern_fn, mat1, mat2);
+    };
+    ($fn_name:ident, $extern_fn:literal, 3) => {
+        generate_linalg_extern_fn!($fn_name, $extern_fn, mat1, mat2, mat3);
+    };
+    ($fn_name:ident, $extern_fn:literal, 4) => {
+        generate_linalg_extern_fn!($fn_name, $extern_fn, mat1, mat2, mat3, mat4);
+    };
+    ($fn_name:ident, $extern_fn:literal $(,$input_matrix:ident)*) => {
+        #[doc = concat!("Invokes the linalg `", stringify!($extern_fn), " function." )]
+        pub fn $fn_name<'ctx>(
+            ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>
+            $(,$input_matrix: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>)*,
+            name: Option<&str>,
+        ){
+            const FN_NAME: &str = $extern_fn;
+            let extern_fn = ctx.module.get_function(FN_NAME).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                let fn_type = ctx.ctx.void_type().fn_type(&[$($input_matrix.get_type().into()),*], false);
+
+                let func = ctx.module.add_function(FN_NAME, fn_type, None);
+                for attr in ["mustprogress", "nofree", "nounwind", "willreturn", "writeonly"] {
+                    func.add_attribute(
+                        AttributeLoc::Function,
+                        ctx.ctx.create_enum_attribute(Attribute::get_named_enum_kind_id(attr), 0),
+                    );
+                }
+                func
+            });
+
+            ctx.builder.build_call(extern_fn, &[$($input_matrix.into(),)*], name.unwrap_or_default()).unwrap();
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+generate_linalg_extern_fn!(call_np_linalg_cholesky, "np_linalg_cholesky", 2);
+generate_linalg_extern_fn!(call_np_linalg_qr, "np_linalg_qr", 3);
+generate_linalg_extern_fn!(call_np_linalg_svd, "np_linalg_svd", 4);
+generate_linalg_extern_fn!(call_np_linalg_inv, "np_linalg_inv", 2);
+generate_linalg_extern_fn!(call_np_linalg_pinv, "np_linalg_pinv", 2);
+generate_linalg_extern_fn!(call_np_linalg_matrix_power, "np_linalg_matrix_power", 3);
+generate_linalg_extern_fn!(call_np_linalg_det, "np_linalg_det", 2);
+generate_linalg_extern_fn!(call_sp_linalg_lu, "sp_linalg_lu", 3);
+generate_linalg_extern_fn!(call_sp_linalg_schur, "sp_linalg_schur", 3);
+generate_linalg_extern_fn!(call_sp_linalg_hessenberg, "sp_linalg_hessenberg", 3);

nac3core/src/codegen/generator.rs

@@ -1,16 +1,18 @@
-use crate::{
-    codegen::{expr::*, stmt::*, bool_to_i1, bool_to_i8, CodeGenContext},
-    symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
-    toplevel::{DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
-    typecheck::typedef::{FunSignature, Type},
-};
 use inkwell::{
     context::Context,
     types::{BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
     values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
 };
+
 use nac3parser::ast::{Expr, Stmt, StrRef};
 
+use super::{bool_to_i1, bool_to_i8, expr::*, stmt::*, values::ArraySliceValue, CodeGenContext};
+use crate::{
+    symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
+    toplevel::{DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
+    typecheck::typedef::{FunSignature, Type},
+};
+
 pub trait CodeGenerator {
     /// Return the module name for the code generator.
     fn get_name(&self) -> &str;
@@ -57,6 +59,7 @@ pub trait CodeGenerator {
     /// - fun: Function signature, definition ID and the substitution key.
     /// - params: Function parameters. Note that this does not include the object even if the
     ///   function is a class method.
+    ///
     /// Note that this function should check if the function is generated in another thread (due to
     /// possible race condition), see the default implementation for an example.
     fn gen_func_instance<'ctx>(
@@ -92,6 +95,18 @@ pub trait CodeGenerator {
         gen_var(ctx, ty, name)
     }
 
+    /// Allocate memory for a variable and return a pointer pointing to it.
+    /// The default implementation places the allocations at the start of the function.
+    fn gen_array_var_alloc<'ctx>(
+        &mut self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ty: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> Result<ArraySliceValue<'ctx>, String> {
+        gen_array_var(ctx, ty, size, name)
+    }
+
     /// Return a pointer pointing to the target of the expression.
     fn gen_store_target<'ctx>(
         &mut self,
@@ -111,11 +126,45 @@ pub trait CodeGenerator {
         ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
         target: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
         value: ValueEnum<'ctx>,
+        value_ty: Type,
     ) -> Result<(), String>
     where
         Self: Sized,
     {
-        gen_assign(self, ctx, target, value)
+        gen_assign(self, ctx, target, value, value_ty)
+    }
+
+    /// Generate code for an assignment expression where LHS is a `"target_list"`.
+    ///
+    /// See <https://docs.python.org/3/reference/simple_stmts.html#assignment-statements>.
+    fn gen_assign_target_list<'ctx>(
+        &mut self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        targets: &Vec<Expr<Option<Type>>>,
+        value: ValueEnum<'ctx>,
+        value_ty: Type,
+    ) -> Result<(), String>
+    where
+        Self: Sized,
+    {
+        gen_assign_target_list(self, ctx, targets, value, value_ty)
+    }
+
+    /// Generate code for an item assignment.
+    ///
+    /// i.e., `target[key] = value`
+    fn gen_setitem<'ctx>(
+        &mut self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        target: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
+        key: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
+        value: ValueEnum<'ctx>,
+        value_ty: Type,
+    ) -> Result<(), String>
+    where
+        Self: Sized,
+    {
+        gen_setitem(self, ctx, target, key, value, value_ty)
     }
 
     /// Generate code for a while expression.
@@ -131,8 +180,8 @@ pub trait CodeGenerator {
         gen_while(self, ctx, stmt)
     }
 
-    /// Generate code for a while expression.
+    /// Generate code for a for expression.
-    /// Return true if the while loop must early return
+    /// Return true if the for loop must early return
     fn gen_for(
         &mut self,
         ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'_, '_>,
@@ -198,7 +247,7 @@ pub trait CodeGenerator {
     fn bool_to_i1<'ctx>(
         &self,
         ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-        bool_value: IntValue<'ctx>
+        bool_value: IntValue<'ctx>,
     ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
         bool_to_i1(&ctx.builder, bool_value)
     }
@@ -207,7 +256,7 @@ pub trait CodeGenerator {
     fn bool_to_i8<'ctx>(
         &self,
         ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-        bool_value: IntValue<'ctx>
+        bool_value: IntValue<'ctx>,
     ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
         bool_to_i8(&ctx.builder, ctx.ctx, bool_value)
     }
@@ -227,7 +276,6 @@ impl DefaultCodeGenerator {
 }
 
 impl CodeGenerator for DefaultCodeGenerator {
-
     /// Returns the name for this [`CodeGenerator`].
     fn get_name(&self) -> &str {
         &self.name

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/irrt.c

@@ -1,199 +0,0 @@
-typedef _BitInt(8) int8_t;
-typedef unsigned _BitInt(8) uint8_t;
-typedef _BitInt(32) int32_t;
-typedef unsigned _BitInt(32) uint32_t;
-typedef _BitInt(64) int64_t;
-typedef unsigned _BitInt(64) uint64_t;
-
-# define MAX(a, b) (a > b ? a : b)
-# define MIN(a, b) (a > b ? b : a)
-
-// adapted from GNU Scientific Library: https://git.savannah.gnu.org/cgit/gsl.git/tree/sys/pow_int.c
-// need to make sure `exp >= 0` before calling this function
-#define DEF_INT_EXP(T) T __nac3_int_exp_##T( \
-    T base, \
-    T exp \
-) { \
-    T res = (T)1; \
-    /* repeated squaring method */ \
-    do { \
-       if (exp & 1) res *= base;  /* for n odd */ \
-       exp >>= 1; \
-       base *= base; \
-    } while (exp); \
-    return res; \
-} \
-
-DEF_INT_EXP(int32_t)
-DEF_INT_EXP(int64_t)
-DEF_INT_EXP(uint32_t)
-DEF_INT_EXP(uint64_t)
-
-
-int32_t __nac3_slice_index_bound(int32_t i, const int32_t len) {
-    if (i < 0) {
-        i = len + i;
-    }
-    if (i < 0) {
-        return 0;
-    } else if (i > len) {
-        return len;
-    }
-    return i;
-}
-
-int32_t __nac3_range_slice_len(const int32_t start, const int32_t end, const int32_t step) {
-    int32_t diff = end - start;
-    if (diff > 0 && step > 0) {
-        return ((diff - 1) / step) + 1;
-    } else if (diff < 0 && step < 0) {
-        return ((diff + 1) / step) + 1;
-    } else {
-        return 0;
-    }
-}
-
-// Handle list assignment and dropping part of the list when
-// both dest_step and src_step are +1.
-// - All the index must *not* be out-of-bound or negative,
-// - The end index is *inclusive*,
-// - The length of src and dest slice size should already
-// be checked: if dest.step == 1 then len(src) <= len(dest) else len(src) == len(dest)
-int32_t __nac3_list_slice_assign_var_size(
-    int32_t dest_start,
-    int32_t dest_end,
-    int32_t dest_step,
-    uint8_t *dest_arr,
-    int32_t dest_arr_len,
-    int32_t src_start,
-    int32_t src_end,
-    int32_t src_step,
-    uint8_t *src_arr,
-    int32_t src_arr_len,
-    const int32_t size
-) {
-    /* if dest_arr_len == 0, do nothing since we do not support extending list */
-    if (dest_arr_len == 0) return dest_arr_len;
-    /* if both step is 1, memmove directly, handle the dropping of the list, and shrink size */
-    if (src_step == dest_step && dest_step == 1) {
-        const int32_t src_len = (src_end >= src_start) ? (src_end - src_start + 1) : 0;
-        const int32_t dest_len = (dest_end >= dest_start) ? (dest_end - dest_start + 1) : 0;
-        if (src_len > 0) {
-            __builtin_memmove(
-                dest_arr + dest_start * size,
-                src_arr + src_start * size,
-                src_len * size
-            );
-        }
-        if (dest_len > 0) {
-            /* dropping */
-            __builtin_memmove(
-                dest_arr + (dest_start + src_len) * size,
-                dest_arr + (dest_end + 1) * size,
-                (dest_arr_len - dest_end - 1) * size
-            );
-        }
-        /* shrink size */
-        return dest_arr_len - (dest_len - src_len);
-    }
-    /* if two range overlaps, need alloca */
-    uint8_t need_alloca =
-        (dest_arr == src_arr)
-        && !(
-            MAX(dest_start, dest_end) < MIN(src_start, src_end)
-            || MAX(src_start, src_end) < MIN(dest_start, dest_end)
-        );
-    if (need_alloca) {
-        uint8_t *tmp = __builtin_alloca(src_arr_len * size);
-        __builtin_memcpy(tmp, src_arr, src_arr_len * size);
-        src_arr = tmp;
-    }
-    int32_t src_ind = src_start;
-    int32_t dest_ind = dest_start;
-    for (;
-        (src_step > 0) ? (src_ind <= src_end) : (src_ind >= src_end);
-        src_ind += src_step, dest_ind += dest_step
-    ) {
-        /* for constant optimization */
-        if (size == 1) {
-            __builtin_memcpy(dest_arr + dest_ind, src_arr + src_ind, 1);
-        } else if (size == 4) {
-            __builtin_memcpy(dest_arr + dest_ind * 4, src_arr + src_ind * 4, 4);
-        } else if (size == 8) {
-            __builtin_memcpy(dest_arr + dest_ind * 8, src_arr + src_ind * 8, 8);
-        } else {
-            /* memcpy for var size, cannot overlap after previous alloca */
-            __builtin_memcpy(dest_arr + dest_ind * size, src_arr + src_ind * size, size);
-        }
-    }
-    /* only dest_step == 1 can we shrink the dest list. */
-    /* size should be ensured prior to calling this function */
-    if (dest_step == 1 && dest_end >= dest_start) {
-        __builtin_memmove(
-            dest_arr + dest_ind * size,
-            dest_arr + (dest_end + 1) * size,
-            (dest_arr_len - dest_end - 1) * size
-        );
-        return dest_arr_len - (dest_end - dest_ind) - 1;
-    }
-    return dest_arr_len;
-}
-
-int32_t __nac3_isinf(double x) {
-    return __builtin_isinf(x);
-}
-
-int32_t __nac3_isnan(double x) {
-    return __builtin_isnan(x);
-}
-
-double tgamma(double arg);
-
-double __nac3_gamma(double z) {
-    // Handling for denormals
-    //     | x                 | Python gamma(x) | C tgamma(x) |
-    // --- | ----------------- | --------------- | ----------- |
-    // (1) | nan               | nan             | nan         |
-    // (2) | -inf              | -inf            | inf         |
-    // (3) | inf               | inf             | inf         |
-    // (4) | 0.0               | inf             | inf         |
-    // (5) | {-1.0, -2.0, ...} | inf             | nan         |
-
-    // (1)-(3)
-    if (__builtin_isinf(z) || __builtin_isnan(z)) {
-        return z;
-    }
-
-    double v = tgamma(z);
-
-    // (4)-(5)
-    return __builtin_isinf(v) || __builtin_isnan(v) ? __builtin_inf() : v;
-}
-
-double lgamma(double arg);
-
-double __nac3_gammaln(double x) {
-    // libm's handling of value overflows differs from scipy:
-    // - scipy: gammaln(-inf) -> -inf
-    // - libm : lgamma(-inf) -> inf
-
-    if (__builtin_isinf(x)) {
-        return x;
-    }
-
-    return lgamma(x);
-}
-
-double j0(double x);
-
-double __nac3_j0(double x) {
-    // libm's handling of value overflows differs from scipy:
-    // - scipy: j0(inf) -> nan
-    // - libm : j0(inf) -> 0.0
-
-    if (__builtin_isinf(x)) {
-        return __builtin_nan("");
-    }
-
-    return j0(x);
-}

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/list.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,162 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    types::BasicTypeEnum,
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, IntValue},
+    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
+};
+use itertools::Either;
+
+use super::calculate_len_for_slice_range;
+use crate::codegen::{
+    macros::codegen_unreachable,
+    values::{ArrayLikeValue, ListValue},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+/// This function handles 'end' **inclusively**.
+/// Order of tuples `assign_idx` and `value_idx` is ('start', 'end', 'step').
+/// Negative index should be handled before entering this function
+pub fn list_slice_assignment<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ty: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+    dest_arr: ListValue<'ctx>,
+    dest_idx: (IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>),
+    src_arr: ListValue<'ctx>,
+    src_idx: (IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>),
+) {
+    let size_ty = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let int8_ptr = ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+    let int32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+    let (fun_symbol, elem_ptr_type) = ("__nac3_list_slice_assign_var_size", int8_ptr);
+    let slice_assign_fun = {
+        let ty_vec = vec![
+            int32.into(),         // dest start idx
+            int32.into(),         // dest end idx
+            int32.into(),         // dest step
+            elem_ptr_type.into(), // dest arr ptr
+            int32.into(),         // dest arr len
+            int32.into(),         // src start idx
+            int32.into(),         // src end idx
+            int32.into(),         // src step
+            elem_ptr_type.into(), // src arr ptr
+            int32.into(),         // src arr len
+            int32.into(),         // size
+        ];
+        ctx.module.get_function(fun_symbol).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            let fn_t = int32.fn_type(ty_vec.as_slice(), false);
+            ctx.module.add_function(fun_symbol, fn_t, None)
+        })
+    };
+
+    let zero = int32.const_zero();
+    let one = int32.const_int(1, false);
+    let dest_arr_ptr = dest_arr.data().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
+    let dest_arr_ptr =
+        ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(dest_arr_ptr, elem_ptr_type, "dest_arr_ptr_cast").unwrap();
+    let dest_len = dest_arr.load_size(ctx, Some("dest.len"));
+    let dest_len = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(dest_len, int32, "srclen32").unwrap();
+    let src_arr_ptr = src_arr.data().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
+    let src_arr_ptr =
+        ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(src_arr_ptr, elem_ptr_type, "src_arr_ptr_cast").unwrap();
+    let src_len = src_arr.load_size(ctx, Some("src.len"));
+    let src_len = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(src_len, int32, "srclen32").unwrap();
+
+    // index in bound and positive should be done
+    // assert if dest.step == 1 then len(src) <= len(dest) else len(src) == len(dest), and
+    // throw exception if not satisfied
+    let src_end = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_select(
+            ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, src_idx.2, zero, "is_neg").unwrap(),
+            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(src_idx.1, one, "e_min_one").unwrap(),
+            ctx.builder.build_int_add(src_idx.1, one, "e_add_one").unwrap(),
+            "final_e",
+        )
+        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+        .unwrap();
+    let dest_end = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_select(
+            ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, dest_idx.2, zero, "is_neg").unwrap(),
+            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(dest_idx.1, one, "e_min_one").unwrap(),
+            ctx.builder.build_int_add(dest_idx.1, one, "e_add_one").unwrap(),
+            "final_e",
+        )
+        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+        .unwrap();
+    let src_slice_len =
+        calculate_len_for_slice_range(generator, ctx, src_idx.0, src_end, src_idx.2);
+    let dest_slice_len =
+        calculate_len_for_slice_range(generator, ctx, dest_idx.0, dest_end, dest_idx.2);
+    let src_eq_dest = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, src_slice_len, dest_slice_len, "slice_src_eq_dest")
+        .unwrap();
+    let src_slt_dest = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, src_slice_len, dest_slice_len, "slice_src_slt_dest")
+        .unwrap();
+    let dest_step_eq_one = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_int_compare(
+            IntPredicate::EQ,
+            dest_idx.2,
+            dest_idx.2.get_type().const_int(1, false),
+            "slice_dest_step_eq_one",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+    let cond_1 = ctx.builder.build_and(dest_step_eq_one, src_slt_dest, "slice_cond_1").unwrap();
+    let cond = ctx.builder.build_or(src_eq_dest, cond_1, "slice_cond").unwrap();
+    ctx.make_assert(
+        generator,
+        cond,
+        "0:ValueError",
+        "attempt to assign sequence of size {0} to slice of size {1} with step size {2}",
+        [Some(src_slice_len), Some(dest_slice_len), Some(dest_idx.2)],
+        ctx.current_loc,
+    );
+
+    let new_len = {
+        let args = vec![
+            dest_idx.0.into(),   // dest start idx
+            dest_idx.1.into(),   // dest end idx
+            dest_idx.2.into(),   // dest step
+            dest_arr_ptr.into(), // dest arr ptr
+            dest_len.into(),     // dest arr len
+            src_idx.0.into(),    // src start idx
+            src_idx.1.into(),    // src end idx
+            src_idx.2.into(),    // src step
+            src_arr_ptr.into(),  // src arr ptr
+            src_len.into(),      // src arr len
+            {
+                let s = match ty {
+                    BasicTypeEnum::FloatType(t) => t.size_of(),
+                    BasicTypeEnum::IntType(t) => t.size_of(),
+                    BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(t) => t.size_of(),
+                    BasicTypeEnum::StructType(t) => t.size_of().unwrap(),
+                    _ => codegen_unreachable!(ctx),
+                };
+                ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(s, int32, "size").unwrap()
+            }
+            .into(),
+        ];
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_call(slice_assign_fun, args.as_slice(), "slice_assign")
+            .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+            .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
+            .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+            .unwrap()
+    };
+    // update length
+    let need_update =
+        ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, new_len, dest_len, "need_update").unwrap();
+    let current = ctx.builder.get_insert_block().unwrap().get_parent().unwrap();
+    let update_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "update");
+    let cont_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "cont");
+    ctx.builder.build_conditional_branch(need_update, update_bb, cont_bb).unwrap();
+    ctx.builder.position_at_end(update_bb);
+    let new_len = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(new_len, size_ty, "new_len").unwrap();
+    dest_arr.store_size(ctx, generator, new_len);
+    ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(cont_bb).unwrap();
+    ctx.builder.position_at_end(cont_bb);
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/math.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,152 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue},
+    IntPredicate,
+};
+use itertools::Either;
+
+use crate::codegen::{
+    macros::codegen_unreachable,
+    {CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+};
+
+// repeated squaring method adapted from GNU Scientific Library:
+// https://git.savannah.gnu.org/cgit/gsl.git/tree/sys/pow_int.c
+pub fn integer_power<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    base: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    exp: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    signed: bool,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    let symbol = match (base.get_type().get_bit_width(), exp.get_type().get_bit_width(), signed) {
+        (32, 32, true) => "__nac3_int_exp_int32_t",
+        (64, 64, true) => "__nac3_int_exp_int64_t",
+        (32, 32, false) => "__nac3_int_exp_uint32_t",
+        (64, 64, false) => "__nac3_int_exp_uint64_t",
+        _ => codegen_unreachable!(ctx),
+    };
+    let base_type = base.get_type();
+    let pow_fun = ctx.module.get_function(symbol).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let fn_type = base_type.fn_type(&[base_type.into(), base_type.into()], false);
+        ctx.module.add_function(symbol, fn_type, None)
+    });
+    // throw exception when exp < 0
+    let ge_zero = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_int_compare(
+            IntPredicate::SGE,
+            exp,
+            exp.get_type().const_zero(),
+            "assert_int_pow_ge_0",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+    ctx.make_assert(
+        generator,
+        ge_zero,
+        "0:ValueError",
+        "integer power must be positive or zero",
+        [None, None, None],
+        ctx.current_loc,
+    );
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(pow_fun, &[base.into(), exp.into()], "call_int_pow")
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Generates a call to `isinf` in IR. Returns an `i1` representing the result.
+pub fn call_isinf<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_isinf").unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let fn_type = ctx.ctx.i32_type().fn_type(&[ctx.ctx.f64_type().into()], false);
+        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_isinf", fn_type, None)
+    });
+
+    let ret = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "isinf")
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap();
+
+    generator.bool_to_i1(ctx, ret)
+}
+
+/// Generates a call to `isnan` in IR. Returns an `i1` representing the result.
+pub fn call_isnan<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_isnan").unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let fn_type = ctx.ctx.i32_type().fn_type(&[ctx.ctx.f64_type().into()], false);
+        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_isnan", fn_type, None)
+    });
+
+    let ret = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "isnan")
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap();
+
+    generator.bool_to_i1(ctx, ret)
+}
+
+/// Generates a call to `gamma` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
+pub fn call_gamma<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, v: FloatValue<'ctx>) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
+    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
+
+    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_gamma").unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
+        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_gamma", fn_type, None)
+    });
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "gamma")
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Generates a call to `gammaln` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
+pub fn call_gammaln<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, v: FloatValue<'ctx>) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
+    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
+
+    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_gammaln").unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
+        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_gammaln", fn_type, None)
+    });
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "gammaln")
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Generates a call to `j0` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
+pub fn call_j0<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, v: FloatValue<'ctx>) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
+    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
+
+    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_j0").unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
+        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_j0", fn_type, None)
+    });
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "j0")
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap()
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/mod.rs

@@ -1,19 +1,29 @@
-use crate::typecheck::typedef::Type;
-
-use super::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
 use inkwell::{
     attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
     context::Context,
     memory_buffer::MemoryBuffer,
     module::Module,
-    types::BasicTypeEnum,
+    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, IntValue},
-    values::{FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    IntPredicate,
-    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
 };
+
 use nac3parser::ast::Expr;
 
+use super::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
+use crate::{symbol_resolver::SymbolResolver, typecheck::typedef::Type};
+pub use list::*;
+pub use math::*;
+pub use range::*;
+pub use slice::*;
+
+mod list;
+mod math;
+pub mod ndarray;
+mod range;
+mod slice;
+
 #[must_use]
-pub fn load_irrt(ctx: &Context) -> Module {
+pub fn load_irrt<'ctx>(ctx: &'ctx Context, symbol_resolver: &dyn SymbolResolver) -> Module<'ctx> {
     let bitcode_buf = MemoryBuffer::create_from_memory_range(
         include_bytes!(concat!(env!("OUT_DIR"), "/irrt.bc")),
         "irrt_bitcode_buffer",
@@ -29,87 +39,47 @@ pub fn load_irrt(ctx: &Context) -> Module {
         let function = irrt_mod.get_function(symbol).unwrap();
         function.add_attribute(AttributeLoc::Function, ctx.create_enum_attribute(inline_attr, 0));
     }
+
+    // Initialize all global `EXN_*` exception IDs in IRRT with the [`SymbolResolver`].
+    let exn_id_type = ctx.i32_type();
+    let errors = &[
+        ("EXN_INDEX_ERROR", "0:IndexError"),
+        ("EXN_VALUE_ERROR", "0:ValueError"),
+        ("EXN_ASSERTION_ERROR", "0:AssertionError"),
+        ("EXN_TYPE_ERROR", "0:TypeError"),
+    ];
+    for (irrt_name, symbol_name) in errors {
+        let exn_id = symbol_resolver.get_string_id(symbol_name);
+        let exn_id = exn_id_type.const_int(exn_id as u64, false).as_basic_value_enum();
+
+        let global = irrt_mod.get_global(irrt_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            panic!("Exception symbol name '{irrt_name}' should exist in the IRRT LLVM module")
+        });
+        global.set_initializer(&exn_id);
+    }
+
     irrt_mod
 }
 
-// repeated squaring method adapted from GNU Scientific Library:
+/// Returns the name of a function which contains variants for 32-bit and 64-bit `size_t`.
-// https://git.savannah.gnu.org/cgit/gsl.git/tree/sys/pow_int.c
+///
-pub fn integer_power<'ctx>(
+/// - When [`TypeContext::size_type`] is 32-bits, the function name is `fn_name}`.
-    generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
+/// - When [`TypeContext::size_type`] is 64-bits, the function name is `{fn_name}64`.
-    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+#[must_use]
-    base: IntValue<'ctx>,
+pub fn get_usize_dependent_function_name<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
-    exp: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    generator: &G,
-    signed: bool,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'_, '_>,
-) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    name: &str,
-    let symbol = match (base.get_type().get_bit_width(), exp.get_type().get_bit_width(), signed) {
+) -> String {
-        (32, 32, true) => "__nac3_int_exp_int32_t",
+    let mut name = name.to_owned();
-        (64, 64, true) => "__nac3_int_exp_int64_t",
+    match generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx).get_bit_width() {
-        (32, 32, false) => "__nac3_int_exp_uint32_t",
+        32 => {}
-        (64, 64, false) => "__nac3_int_exp_uint64_t",
+        64 => name.push_str("64"),
-        _ => unreachable!(),
+        bit_width => {
-    };
+            panic!("Unsupported int type bit width {bit_width}, must be either 32-bits or 64-bits")
-    let base_type = base.get_type();
+        }
-    let pow_fun = ctx.module.get_function(symbol).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+    }
-        let fn_type = base_type.fn_type(&[base_type.into(), base_type.into()], false);
+    name
-        ctx.module.add_function(symbol, fn_type, None)
-    });
-    // throw exception when exp < 0
-    let ge_zero = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
-        IntPredicate::SGE,
-        exp,
-        exp.get_type().const_zero(),
-        "assert_int_pow_ge_0",
-    );
-    ctx.make_assert(
-        generator,
-        ge_zero,
-        "0:ValueError",
-        "integer power must be positive or zero",
-        [None, None, None],
-        ctx.current_loc,
-    );
-    ctx.builder
-        .build_call(pow_fun, &[base.into(), exp.into()], "call_int_pow")
-        .try_as_basic_value()
-        .unwrap_left()
-        .into_int_value()
-}
-
-pub fn calculate_len_for_slice_range<'ctx>(
-    generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
-    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    start: IntValue<'ctx>,
-    end: IntValue<'ctx>,
-    step: IntValue<'ctx>,
-) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
-    const SYMBOL: &str = "__nac3_range_slice_len";
-    let len_func = ctx.module.get_function(SYMBOL).unwrap_or_else(|| {
-        let i32_t = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
-        let fn_t = i32_t.fn_type(&[i32_t.into(), i32_t.into(), i32_t.into()], false);
-        ctx.module.add_function(SYMBOL, fn_t, None)
-    });
-
-    // assert step != 0, throw exception if not
-    let not_zero = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
-        IntPredicate::NE,
-        step,
-        step.get_type().const_zero(),
-        "range_step_ne",
-    );
-    ctx.make_assert(
-        generator,
-        not_zero,
-        "0:ValueError",
-        "step must not be zero",
-        [None, None, None],
-        ctx.current_loc,
-    );
-    ctx.builder
-        .build_call(len_func, &[start.into(), end.into(), step.into()], "calc_len")
-        .try_as_basic_value()
-        .left()
-        .unwrap()
-        .into_int_value()
 }
 
 /// NOTE: the output value of the end index of this function should be compared ***inclusively***,
@@ -158,13 +128,12 @@ pub fn handle_slice_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
     step: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>,
     ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
     generator: &mut G,
-    list: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    length: IntValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> Result<Option<(IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>)>, String> {
     let int32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
     let zero = int32.const_zero();
     let one = int32.const_int(1, false);
-    let length = ctx.build_gep_and_load(list, &[zero, one], Some("length")).into_int_value();
+    let length = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(length, int32, "leni32").unwrap();
-    let length = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(length, int32, "leni32");
     Ok(Some(match (start, end, step) {
         (s, e, None) => (
             if let Some(s) = s.as_ref() {
@@ -184,7 +153,7 @@ pub fn handle_slice_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                 } else {
                     length
                 };
-                ctx.builder.build_int_sub(e, one, "final_end")
+                ctx.builder.build_int_sub(e, one, "final_end").unwrap()
             },
             one,
         ),
@@ -192,15 +161,18 @@ pub fn handle_slice_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
             let step = if let Some(v) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, step)? {
                 v.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, ctx.primitives.int32)?.into_int_value()
             } else {
-                return Ok(None)
+                return Ok(None);
             };
             // assert step != 0, throw exception if not
-            let not_zero = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
+            let not_zero = ctx
-                IntPredicate::NE,
+                .builder
-                step,
+                .build_int_compare(
-                step.get_type().const_zero(),
+                    IntPredicate::NE,
-                "range_step_ne",
+                    step,
-            );
+                    step.get_type().const_zero(),
+                    "range_step_ne",
+                )
+                .unwrap();
             ctx.make_assert(
                 generator,
                 not_zero,
@@ -209,340 +181,69 @@ pub fn handle_slice_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                 [None, None, None],
                 ctx.current_loc,
             );
-            let len_id = ctx.builder.build_int_sub(length, one, "lenmin1");
+            let len_id = ctx.builder.build_int_sub(length, one, "lenmin1").unwrap();
-            let neg = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, step, zero, "step_is_neg");
+            let neg = ctx
+                .builder
+                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, step, zero, "step_is_neg")
+                .unwrap();
             (
                 match s {
                     Some(s) => {
                         let Some(s) = handle_slice_index_bound(s, ctx, generator, length)? else {
-                            return Ok(None)
+                            return Ok(None);
                         };
                         ctx.builder
                             .build_select(
-                                ctx.builder.build_and(
+                                ctx.builder
-                                    ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
+                                    .build_and(
-                                        IntPredicate::EQ,
+                                        ctx.builder
-                                        s,
+                                            .build_int_compare(
-                                        length,
+                                                IntPredicate::EQ,
-                                        "s_eq_len",
+                                                s,
-                                    ),
+                                                length,
-                                    neg,
+                                                "s_eq_len",
-                                    "should_minus_one",
+                                            )
-                                ),
+                                            .unwrap(),
-                                ctx.builder.build_int_sub(s, one, "s_min"),
+                                        neg,
+                                        "should_minus_one",
+                                    )
+                                    .unwrap(),
+                                ctx.builder.build_int_sub(s, one, "s_min").unwrap(),
                                 s,
                                 "final_start",
                             )
-                            .into_int_value()
+                            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+                            .unwrap()
                     }
-                    None => ctx.builder.build_select(neg, len_id, zero, "stt").into_int_value(),
+                    None => ctx
+                        .builder
+                        .build_select(neg, len_id, zero, "stt")
+                        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+                        .unwrap(),
                 },
                 match e {
                     Some(e) => {
                         let Some(e) = handle_slice_index_bound(e, ctx, generator, length)? else {
-                            return Ok(None)
+                            return Ok(None);
                         };
                         ctx.builder
                             .build_select(
                                 neg,
-                                ctx.builder.build_int_add(e, one, "end_add_one"),
+                                ctx.builder.build_int_add(e, one, "end_add_one").unwrap(),
-                                ctx.builder.build_int_sub(e, one, "end_sub_one"),
+                                ctx.builder.build_int_sub(e, one, "end_sub_one").unwrap(),
                                 "final_end",
                             )
-                            .into_int_value()
+                            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+                            .unwrap()
                     }
-                    None => ctx.builder.build_select(neg, zero, len_id, "end").into_int_value(),
+                    None => ctx
+                        .builder
+                        .build_select(neg, zero, len_id, "end")
+                        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+                        .unwrap(),
                 },
                 step,
             )
         }
     }))
 }
-
-/// this function allows index out of range, since python
-/// allows index out of range in slice (`a = [1,2,3]; a[1:10] == [2,3]`).
-pub fn handle_slice_index_bound<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
-    i: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
-    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    generator: &mut G,
-    length: IntValue<'ctx>,
-) -> Result<Option<IntValue<'ctx>>, String> {
-    const SYMBOL: &str = "__nac3_slice_index_bound";
-    let func = ctx.module.get_function(SYMBOL).unwrap_or_else(|| {
-        let i32_t = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
-        let fn_t = i32_t.fn_type(&[i32_t.into(), i32_t.into()], false);
-        ctx.module.add_function(SYMBOL, fn_t, None)
-    });
-
-    let i = if let Some(v) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, i)? {
-        v.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, i.custom.unwrap())?
-    } else {
-        return Ok(None)
-    };
-    Ok(Some(ctx
-        .builder
-        .build_call(func, &[i.into(), length.into()], "bounded_ind")
-        .try_as_basic_value()
-        .left()
-        .unwrap()
-        .into_int_value()))
-}
-
-/// This function handles 'end' **inclusively**.
-/// Order of tuples `assign_idx` and `value_idx` is ('start', 'end', 'step').
-/// Negative index should be handled before entering this function
-pub fn list_slice_assignment<'ctx>(
-    generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
-    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    ty: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
-    dest_arr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
-    dest_idx: (IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>),
-    src_arr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
-    src_idx: (IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>),
-) {
-    let size_ty = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
-    let int8_ptr = ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
-    let int32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
-    let (fun_symbol, elem_ptr_type) = ("__nac3_list_slice_assign_var_size", int8_ptr);
-    let slice_assign_fun = {
-        let ty_vec = vec![
-            int32.into(),         // dest start idx
-            int32.into(),         // dest end idx
-            int32.into(),         // dest step
-            elem_ptr_type.into(), // dest arr ptr
-            int32.into(),         // dest arr len
-            int32.into(),         // src start idx
-            int32.into(),         // src end idx
-            int32.into(),         // src step
-            elem_ptr_type.into(), // src arr ptr
-            int32.into(),         // src arr len
-            int32.into(),         // size
-        ];
-        ctx.module.get_function(fun_symbol).unwrap_or_else(|| {
-            let fn_t = int32.fn_type(ty_vec.as_slice(), false);
-            ctx.module.add_function(fun_symbol, fn_t, None)
-        })
-    };
-
-    let zero = int32.const_zero();
-    let one = int32.const_int(1, false);
-    let dest_arr_ptr = ctx.build_gep_and_load(dest_arr, &[zero, zero], Some("dest.addr"));
-    let dest_arr_ptr = ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(
-        dest_arr_ptr.into_pointer_value(),
-        elem_ptr_type,
-        "dest_arr_ptr_cast",
-    );
-    let dest_len = ctx.build_gep_and_load(dest_arr, &[zero, one], Some("dest.len")).into_int_value();
-    let dest_len = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(dest_len, int32, "srclen32");
-    let src_arr_ptr = ctx.build_gep_and_load(src_arr, &[zero, zero], Some("src.addr"));
-    let src_arr_ptr = ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(
-        src_arr_ptr.into_pointer_value(),
-        elem_ptr_type,
-        "src_arr_ptr_cast",
-    );
-    let src_len = ctx.build_gep_and_load(src_arr, &[zero, one], Some("src.len")).into_int_value();
-    let src_len = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(src_len, int32, "srclen32");
-
-    // index in bound and positive should be done
-    // assert if dest.step == 1 then len(src) <= len(dest) else len(src) == len(dest), and
-    // throw exception if not satisfied
-    let src_end = ctx.builder
-        .build_select(
-            ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
-                IntPredicate::SLT,
-                src_idx.2,
-                zero,
-                "is_neg",
-            ),
-            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(src_idx.1, one, "e_min_one"),
-            ctx.builder.build_int_add(src_idx.1, one, "e_add_one"),
-            "final_e",
-        )
-        .into_int_value();
-    let dest_end = ctx.builder
-        .build_select(
-            ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
-                IntPredicate::SLT,
-                dest_idx.2,
-                zero,
-                "is_neg",
-            ),
-            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(dest_idx.1, one, "e_min_one"),
-            ctx.builder.build_int_add(dest_idx.1, one, "e_add_one"),
-            "final_e",
-        )
-        .into_int_value();
-    let src_slice_len =
-        calculate_len_for_slice_range(generator, ctx, src_idx.0, src_end, src_idx.2);
-    let dest_slice_len =
-        calculate_len_for_slice_range(generator, ctx, dest_idx.0, dest_end, dest_idx.2);
-    let src_eq_dest = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
-        IntPredicate::EQ,
-        src_slice_len,
-        dest_slice_len,
-        "slice_src_eq_dest",
-    );
-    let src_slt_dest = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
-        IntPredicate::SLT,
-        src_slice_len,
-        dest_slice_len,
-        "slice_src_slt_dest",
-    );
-    let dest_step_eq_one = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
-        IntPredicate::EQ,
-        dest_idx.2,
-        dest_idx.2.get_type().const_int(1, false),
-        "slice_dest_step_eq_one",
-    );
-    let cond_1 = ctx.builder.build_and(dest_step_eq_one, src_slt_dest, "slice_cond_1");
-    let cond = ctx.builder.build_or(src_eq_dest, cond_1, "slice_cond");
-    ctx.make_assert(
-        generator,
-        cond,
-        "0:ValueError",
-        "attempt to assign sequence of size {0} to slice of size {1} with step size {2}",
-        [Some(src_slice_len), Some(dest_slice_len), Some(dest_idx.2)],
-        ctx.current_loc,
-    );
-
-    let new_len = {
-        let args = vec![
-            dest_idx.0.into(),   // dest start idx
-            dest_idx.1.into(),   // dest end idx
-            dest_idx.2.into(),   // dest step
-            dest_arr_ptr.into(), // dest arr ptr
-            dest_len.into(),     // dest arr len
-            src_idx.0.into(),    // src start idx
-            src_idx.1.into(),    // src end idx
-            src_idx.2.into(),    // src step
-            src_arr_ptr.into(),  // src arr ptr
-            src_len.into(),      // src arr len
-            {
-                let s = match ty {
-                    BasicTypeEnum::FloatType(t) => t.size_of(),
-                    BasicTypeEnum::IntType(t) => t.size_of(),
-                    BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(t) => t.size_of(),
-                    BasicTypeEnum::StructType(t) => t.size_of().unwrap(),
-                    _ => unreachable!(),
-                };
-                ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(s, int32, "size")
-            }
-            .into(),
-        ];
-        ctx.builder
-            .build_call(slice_assign_fun, args.as_slice(), "slice_assign")
-            .try_as_basic_value()
-            .unwrap_left()
-            .into_int_value()
-    };
-    // update length
-    let need_update =
-        ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, new_len, dest_len, "need_update");
-    let current = ctx.builder.get_insert_block().unwrap().get_parent().unwrap();
-    let update_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "update");
-    let cont_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "cont");
-    ctx.builder.build_conditional_branch(need_update, update_bb, cont_bb);
-    ctx.builder.position_at_end(update_bb);
-    let dest_len_ptr = unsafe { ctx.builder.build_gep(dest_arr, &[zero, one], "dest_len_ptr") };
-    let new_len = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(new_len, size_ty, "new_len");
-    ctx.builder.build_store(dest_len_ptr, new_len);
-    ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(cont_bb);
-    ctx.builder.position_at_end(cont_bb);
-}
-
-/// Generates a call to `isinf` in IR. Returns an `i1` representing the result.
-pub fn call_isinf<'ctx>(
-    generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
-    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
-) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
-    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_isinf").unwrap_or_else(|| {
-        let fn_type = ctx.ctx.i32_type().fn_type(&[ctx.ctx.f64_type().into()], false);
-        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_isinf", fn_type, None)
-    });
-
-    let ret = ctx.builder
-        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "isinf")
-        .try_as_basic_value()
-        .unwrap_left()
-        .into_int_value();
-
-    generator.bool_to_i1(ctx, ret)
-}
-
-/// Generates a call to `isnan` in IR. Returns an `i1` representing the result.
-pub fn call_isnan<'ctx>(
-    generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
-    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
-) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
-    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_isnan").unwrap_or_else(|| {
-        let fn_type = ctx.ctx.i32_type().fn_type(&[ctx.ctx.f64_type().into()], false);
-        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_isnan", fn_type, None)
-    });
-
-    let ret = ctx.builder
-        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "isnan")
-        .try_as_basic_value()
-        .unwrap_left()
-        .into_int_value();
-
-    generator.bool_to_i1(ctx, ret)
-}
-
-/// Generates a call to `gamma` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
-pub fn call_gamma<'ctx>(
-    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
-) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
-    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
-
-    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_gamma").unwrap_or_else(|| {
-        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
-        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_gamma", fn_type, None)
-    });
-
-    ctx.builder
-        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "gamma")
-        .try_as_basic_value()
-        .unwrap_left()
-        .into_float_value()
-}
-
-/// Generates a call to `gammaln` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
-pub fn call_gammaln<'ctx>(
-    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
-) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
-    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
-
-    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_gammaln").unwrap_or_else(|| {
-        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
-        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_gammaln", fn_type, None)
-    });
-
-    ctx.builder
-        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "gammaln")
-        .try_as_basic_value()
-        .unwrap_left()
-        .into_float_value()
-}
-
-/// Generates a call to `j0` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
-pub fn call_j0<'ctx>(
-    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
-) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
-    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
-
-    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_j0").unwrap_or_else(|| {
-        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
-        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_j0", fn_type, None)
-    });
-
-    ctx.builder
-        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "j0")
-        .try_as_basic_value()
-        .unwrap_left()
-        .into_float_value()
-}

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/basic.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,250 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+
+use crate::codegen::{
+    expr::{create_and_call_function, infer_and_call_function},
+    irrt::get_usize_dependent_function_name,
+    types::ProxyType,
+    values::{ndarray::NDArrayValue, ProxyValue},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    shape: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+) {
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(
+        generator,
+        ctx,
+        "__nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative",
+    );
+
+    create_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        Some(llvm_usize.into()),
+        &[(llvm_usize.into(), ndims.into()), (llvm_pusize.into(), shape.into())],
+        None,
+        None,
+    );
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray_ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ndarray_shape: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    output_ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    output_shape: IntValue<'ctx>,
+) {
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(
+        generator,
+        ctx,
+        "__nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same",
+    );
+
+    create_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        Some(llvm_usize.into()),
+        &[
+            (llvm_usize.into(), ndarray_ndims.into()),
+            (llvm_pusize.into(), ndarray_shape.into()),
+            (llvm_usize.into(), output_ndims.into()),
+            (llvm_pusize.into(), output_shape.into()),
+        ],
+        None,
+        None,
+    );
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_size<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
+
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_size");
+
+    create_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        Some(llvm_usize.into()),
+        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into())],
+        Some("size"),
+        None,
+    )
+    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_nbytes<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
+
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_nbytes");
+
+    create_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        Some(llvm_usize.into()),
+        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into())],
+        Some("nbytes"),
+        None,
+    )
+    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_len<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
+
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_len");
+
+    create_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        Some(llvm_usize.into()),
+        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into())],
+        Some("len"),
+        None,
+    )
+    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    let llvm_i1 = ctx.ctx.bool_type();
+    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
+
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous");
+
+    create_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        Some(llvm_i1.into()),
+        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into())],
+        Some("is_c_contiguous"),
+        None,
+    )
+    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    index: IntValue<'ctx>,
+) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
+    let llvm_pi8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
+
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement");
+
+    create_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        Some(llvm_pi8.into()),
+        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into()), (llvm_usize.into(), index.into())],
+        Some("pelement"),
+        None,
+    )
+    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    indices: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
+    let llvm_pi8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
+
+    let name =
+        get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices");
+
+    create_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        Some(llvm_pi8.into()),
+        &[
+            (llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into()),
+            (llvm_pusize.into(), indices.into()),
+        ],
+        Some("pelement"),
+        None,
+    )
+    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+) {
+    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
+
+    let name =
+        get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape");
+
+    create_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        None,
+        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into())],
+        None,
+        None,
+    );
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_copy_data<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    src_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    dst_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+) {
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_copy_data");
+
+    infer_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        None,
+        &[src_ndarray.as_base_value().into(), dst_ndarray.as_base_value().into()],
+        None,
+        None,
+    );
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/indexing.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+use crate::codegen::{
+    expr::infer_and_call_function,
+    irrt::get_usize_dependent_function_name,
+    values::{ndarray::NDArrayValue, ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_index<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
+    src_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    dst_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+) {
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_index");
+    infer_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        None,
+        &[
+            indices.size(ctx, generator).into(),
+            indices.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
+            src_ndarray.as_base_value().into(),
+            dst_ndarray.as_base_value().into(),
+        ],
+        None,
+        None,
+    );
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/iter.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+
+use crate::codegen::{
+    expr::{create_and_call_function, infer_and_call_function},
+    irrt::get_usize_dependent_function_name,
+    types::ProxyType,
+    values::{
+        ndarray::{NDArrayValue, NDIterValue},
+        ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue,
+    },
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+pub fn call_nac3_nditer_initialize<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    iter: NDIterValue<'ctx>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
+) {
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_nditer_initialize");
+
+    create_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        None,
+        &[
+            (iter.get_type().as_base_type().into(), iter.as_base_value().into()),
+            (ndarray.get_type().as_base_type().into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into()),
+            (llvm_pusize.into(), indices.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into()),
+        ],
+        None,
+        None,
+    );
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_nditer_has_element<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    iter: NDIterValue<'ctx>,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_nditer_has_element");
+
+    infer_and_call_function(
+        ctx,
+        &name,
+        Some(ctx.ctx.bool_type().into()),
+        &[iter.as_base_value().into()],
+        None,
+        None,
+    )
+    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+    .unwrap()
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_nditer_next<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    iter: NDIterValue<'ctx>,
+) {
+    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_nditer_next");
+
+    infer_and_call_function(ctx, &name, None, &[iter.as_base_value().into()], None, None);
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,391 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    types::IntType,
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, IntValue},
+    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
+};
+use itertools::Either;
+
+use crate::codegen::{
+    llvm_intrinsics,
+    macros::codegen_unreachable,
+    stmt::gen_for_callback_incrementing,
+    values::{
+        ndarray::NDArrayValue, ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue,
+        TypedArrayLikeAccessor, TypedArrayLikeAdapter, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
+    },
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+pub use basic::*;
+pub use indexing::*;
+pub use iter::*;
+
+mod basic;
+mod indexing;
+mod iter;
+
+/// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_size`. Returns an [`IntValue`] representing the
+/// calculated total size.
+///
+/// * `dims` - An [`ArrayLikeIndexer`] containing the size of each dimension.
+/// * `range` - The dimension index to begin and end (exclusively) calculating the dimensions for,
+///   or [`None`] if starting from the first dimension and ending at the last dimension
+///   respectively.
+pub fn call_ndarray_calc_size<'ctx, G, Dims>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    dims: &Dims,
+    (begin, end): (Option<IntValue<'ctx>>, Option<IntValue<'ctx>>),
+) -> IntValue<'ctx>
+where
+    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
+    Dims: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx>,
+{
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+    let ndarray_calc_size_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
+        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_size",
+        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_size64",
+        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
+    };
+    let ndarray_calc_size_fn_t = llvm_usize.fn_type(
+        &[llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_usize.into()],
+        false,
+    );
+    let ndarray_calc_size_fn =
+        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_size_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_size_fn_name, ndarray_calc_size_fn_t, None)
+        });
+
+    let begin = begin.unwrap_or_else(|| llvm_usize.const_zero());
+    let end = end.unwrap_or_else(|| dims.size(ctx, generator));
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(
+            ndarray_calc_size_fn,
+            &[
+                dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
+                dims.size(ctx, generator).into(),
+                begin.into(),
+                end.into(),
+            ],
+            "",
+        )
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices`. Returns a [`TypeArrayLikeAdpater`]
+/// containing `i32` indices of the flattened index.
+///
+/// * `index` - The index to compute the multidimensional index for.
+/// * `ndarray` - LLVM pointer to the `NDArray`. This value must be the LLVM representation of an
+///   `NDArray`.
+pub fn call_ndarray_calc_nd_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    index: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+) -> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+    let llvm_void = ctx.ctx.void_type();
+    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_pi32 = llvm_i32.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+    let ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
+        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices",
+        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices64",
+        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
+    };
+    let ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn =
+        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            let fn_type = llvm_void.fn_type(
+                &[llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pi32.into()],
+                false,
+            );
+
+            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn_name, fn_type, None)
+        });
+
+    let ndarray_num_dims = ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
+    let ndarray_dims = ndarray.shape();
+
+    let indices = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_i32, ndarray_num_dims, "").unwrap();
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(
+            ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn,
+            &[
+                index.into(),
+                ndarray_dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
+                ndarray_num_dims.into(),
+                indices.into(),
+            ],
+            "",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+    TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
+        ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(indices, ndarray_num_dims, None),
+        Box::new(|_, v| v.into_int_value()),
+        Box::new(|_, v| v.into()),
+    )
+}
+
+fn call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl<'ctx, G, Indices>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    indices: &Indices,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx>
+where
+    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
+    Indices: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx>,
+{
+    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+
+    let llvm_pi32 = llvm_i32.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+    debug_assert_eq!(
+        IntType::try_from(indices.element_type(ctx, generator))
+            .map(IntType::get_bit_width)
+            .unwrap_or_default(),
+        llvm_i32.get_bit_width(),
+        "Expected i32 value for argument `indices` to `call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl`"
+    );
+    debug_assert_eq!(
+        indices.size(ctx, generator).get_type().get_bit_width(),
+        llvm_usize.get_bit_width(),
+        "Expected usize integer value for argument `indices_size` to `call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl`"
+    );
+
+    let ndarray_flatten_index_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
+        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index",
+        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index64",
+        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
+    };
+    let ndarray_flatten_index_fn =
+        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_flatten_index_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            let fn_type = llvm_usize.fn_type(
+                &[llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pi32.into(), llvm_usize.into()],
+                false,
+            );
+
+            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_flatten_index_fn_name, fn_type, None)
+        });
+
+    let ndarray_num_dims = ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
+    let ndarray_dims = ndarray.shape();
+
+    let index = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_call(
+            ndarray_flatten_index_fn,
+            &[
+                ndarray_dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
+                ndarray_num_dims.into(),
+                indices.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
+                indices.size(ctx, generator).into(),
+            ],
+            "",
+        )
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap();
+
+    index
+}
+
+/// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index`. Returns the flattened index for the
+/// multidimensional index.
+///
+/// * `ndarray` - LLVM pointer to the `NDArray`. This value must be the LLVM representation of an
+///   `NDArray`.
+/// * `indices` - The multidimensional index to compute the flattened index for.
+pub fn call_ndarray_flatten_index<'ctx, G, Index>(
+    generator: &G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    indices: &Index,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx>
+where
+    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
+    Index: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx>,
+{
+    call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(generator, ctx, ndarray, indices)
+}
+
+/// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast`. Returns a tuple containing the number of
+/// dimension and size of each dimension of the resultant `ndarray`.
+pub fn call_ndarray_calc_broadcast<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    lhs: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    rhs: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+) -> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
+        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast",
+        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast64",
+        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
+    };
+    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn =
+        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            let fn_type = llvm_usize.fn_type(
+                &[
+                    llvm_pusize.into(),
+                    llvm_usize.into(),
+                    llvm_pusize.into(),
+                    llvm_usize.into(),
+                    llvm_pusize.into(),
+                ],
+                false,
+            );
+
+            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name, fn_type, None)
+        });
+
+    let lhs_ndims = lhs.load_ndims(ctx);
+    let rhs_ndims = rhs.load_ndims(ctx);
+    let min_ndims = llvm_intrinsics::call_int_umin(ctx, lhs_ndims, rhs_ndims, None);
+
+    gen_for_callback_incrementing(
+        generator,
+        ctx,
+        None,
+        llvm_usize.const_zero(),
+        (min_ndims, false),
+        |generator, ctx, _, idx| {
+            let idx = ctx.builder.build_int_sub(min_ndims, idx, "").unwrap();
+            let (lhs_dim_sz, rhs_dim_sz) = unsafe {
+                (
+                    lhs.shape().get_typed_unchecked(ctx, generator, &idx, None),
+                    rhs.shape().get_typed_unchecked(ctx, generator, &idx, None),
+                )
+            };
+
+            let llvm_usize_const_one = llvm_usize.const_int(1, false);
+            let lhs_eqz = ctx
+                .builder
+                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, lhs_dim_sz, llvm_usize_const_one, "")
+                .unwrap();
+            let rhs_eqz = ctx
+                .builder
+                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, rhs_dim_sz, llvm_usize_const_one, "")
+                .unwrap();
+            let lhs_or_rhs_eqz = ctx.builder.build_or(lhs_eqz, rhs_eqz, "").unwrap();
+
+            let lhs_eq_rhs = ctx
+                .builder
+                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, lhs_dim_sz, rhs_dim_sz, "")
+                .unwrap();
+
+            let is_compatible = ctx.builder.build_or(lhs_or_rhs_eqz, lhs_eq_rhs, "").unwrap();
+
+            ctx.make_assert(
+                generator,
+                is_compatible,
+                "0:ValueError",
+                "operands could not be broadcast together",
+                [None, None, None],
+                ctx.current_loc,
+            );
+
+            Ok(())
+        },
+        llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
+    )
+    .unwrap();
+
+    let max_ndims = llvm_intrinsics::call_int_umax(ctx, lhs_ndims, rhs_ndims, None);
+    let lhs_dims = lhs.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
+    let lhs_ndims = lhs.load_ndims(ctx);
+    let rhs_dims = rhs.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
+    let rhs_ndims = rhs.load_ndims(ctx);
+    let out_dims = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_usize, max_ndims, "").unwrap();
+    let out_dims = ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(out_dims, max_ndims, None);
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(
+            ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn,
+            &[
+                lhs_dims.into(),
+                lhs_ndims.into(),
+                rhs_dims.into(),
+                rhs_ndims.into(),
+                out_dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
+            ],
+            "",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+    TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
+        out_dims,
+        Box::new(|_, v| v.into_int_value()),
+        Box::new(|_, v| v.into()),
+    )
+}
+
+/// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx`. Returns an [`ArrayAllocaValue`]
+/// containing the indices used for accessing `array` corresponding to the index of the broadcasted
+/// array `broadcast_idx`.
+pub fn call_ndarray_calc_broadcast_index<
+    'ctx,
+    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
+    BroadcastIdx: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx>,
+>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    array: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    broadcast_idx: &BroadcastIdx,
+) -> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let llvm_pi32 = llvm_i32.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
+        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx",
+        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx64",
+        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
+    };
+    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn =
+        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            let fn_type = llvm_usize.fn_type(
+                &[llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pi32.into(), llvm_pi32.into()],
+                false,
+            );
+
+            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name, fn_type, None)
+        });
+
+    let broadcast_size = broadcast_idx.size(ctx, generator);
+    let out_idx = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_i32, broadcast_size, "").unwrap();
+
+    let array_dims = array.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
+    let array_ndims = array.load_ndims(ctx);
+    let broadcast_idx_ptr = unsafe {
+        broadcast_idx.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, &llvm_usize.const_zero(), None)
+    };
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(
+            ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn,
+            &[array_dims.into(), array_ndims.into(), broadcast_idx_ptr.into(), out_idx.into()],
+            "",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+    TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
+        ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(out_idx, broadcast_size, None),
+        Box::new(|_, v| v.into_int_value()),
+        Box::new(|_, v| v.into()),
+    )
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/range.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, IntValue},
+    IntPredicate,
+};
+use itertools::Either;
+
+use crate::codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
+
+pub fn calculate_len_for_slice_range<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    start: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    end: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    step: IntValue<'ctx>,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    const SYMBOL: &str = "__nac3_range_slice_len";
+    let len_func = ctx.module.get_function(SYMBOL).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let i32_t = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+        let fn_t = i32_t.fn_type(&[i32_t.into(), i32_t.into(), i32_t.into()], false);
+        ctx.module.add_function(SYMBOL, fn_t, None)
+    });
+
+    // assert step != 0, throw exception if not
+    let not_zero = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, step, step.get_type().const_zero(), "range_step_ne")
+        .unwrap();
+    ctx.make_assert(
+        generator,
+        not_zero,
+        "0:ValueError",
+        "step must not be zero",
+        [None, None, None],
+        ctx.current_loc,
+    );
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(len_func, &[start.into(), end.into(), step.into()], "calc_len")
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap()
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/slice.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, IntValue};
+use itertools::Either;
+
+use nac3parser::ast::Expr;
+
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    typecheck::typedef::Type,
+};
+
+/// this function allows index out of range, since python
+/// allows index out of range in slice (`a = [1,2,3]; a[1:10] == [2,3]`).
+pub fn handle_slice_index_bound<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
+    i: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    generator: &mut G,
+    length: IntValue<'ctx>,
+) -> Result<Option<IntValue<'ctx>>, String> {
+    const SYMBOL: &str = "__nac3_slice_index_bound";
+    let func = ctx.module.get_function(SYMBOL).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let i32_t = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+        let fn_t = i32_t.fn_type(&[i32_t.into(), i32_t.into()], false);
+        ctx.module.add_function(SYMBOL, fn_t, None)
+    });
+
+    let i = if let Some(v) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, i)? {
+        v.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, i.custom.unwrap())?
+    } else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    Ok(Some(
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_call(func, &[i.into(), length.into()], "bounded_ind")
+            .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+            .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
+            .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+            .unwrap(),
+    ))
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/llvm_intrinsics.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,410 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    intrinsics::Intrinsic,
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum::IntType, FloatType},
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+use itertools::Either;
+
+use super::CodeGenContext;
+
+/// Returns the string representation for the floating-point type `ft` when used in intrinsic
+/// functions.
+fn get_float_intrinsic_repr(ctx: &Context, ft: FloatType) -> &'static str {
+    // Standard LLVM floating-point types
+    if ft == ctx.f16_type() {
+        return "f16";
+    }
+    if ft == ctx.f32_type() {
+        return "f32";
+    }
+    if ft == ctx.f64_type() {
+        return "f64";
+    }
+    if ft == ctx.f128_type() {
+        return "f128";
+    }
+
+    // Non-standard floating-point types
+    if ft == ctx.x86_f80_type() {
+        return "f80";
+    }
+    if ft == ctx.ppc_f128_type() {
+        return "ppcf128";
+    }
+
+    unreachable!()
+}
+
+/// Invokes the [`llvm.va_start`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-va-start-intrinsic)
+/// intrinsic.
+pub fn call_va_start<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, arglist: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
+    const FN_NAME: &str = "llvm.va_start";
+
+    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function(FN_NAME).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let llvm_void = ctx.ctx.void_type();
+        let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
+        let llvm_p0i8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+        let fn_type = llvm_void.fn_type(&[llvm_p0i8.into()], false);
+
+        ctx.module.add_function(FN_NAME, fn_type, None)
+    });
+
+    ctx.builder.build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[arglist.into()], "").unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Invokes the [`llvm.va_start`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-va-start-intrinsic)
+/// intrinsic.
+pub fn call_va_end<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, arglist: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
+    const FN_NAME: &str = "llvm.va_end";
+
+    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function(FN_NAME).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let llvm_void = ctx.ctx.void_type();
+        let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
+        let llvm_p0i8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+        let fn_type = llvm_void.fn_type(&[llvm_p0i8.into()], false);
+
+        ctx.module.add_function(FN_NAME, fn_type, None)
+    });
+
+    ctx.builder.build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[arglist.into()], "").unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Invokes the [`llvm.stacksave`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-stacksave-intrinsic)
+/// intrinsic.
+pub fn call_stacksave<'ctx>(
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    name: Option<&str>,
+) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    const FN_NAME: &str = "llvm.stacksave";
+
+    let intrinsic_fn = Intrinsic::find(FN_NAME)
+        .and_then(|intrinsic| intrinsic.get_declaration(&ctx.module, &[]))
+        .unwrap();
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[], name.unwrap_or_default())
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Invokes the
+/// [`llvm.stackrestore`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-stackrestore-intrinsic) intrinsic.
+///
+/// - `ptr`: The pointer storing the address to restore the stack to.
+pub fn call_stackrestore<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
+    const FN_NAME: &str = "llvm.stackrestore";
+
+    /*
+        SEE https://github.com/TheDan64/inkwell/issues/496
+
+        We want `llvm.stackrestore`, but the following would generate `llvm.stackrestore.p0i8`.
+        ```ignore
+        let intrinsic_fn = Intrinsic::find(FN_NAME)
+            .and_then(|intrinsic| intrinsic.get_declaration(&ctx.module, &[llvm_p0i8.into()]))
+            .unwrap();
+        ```
+
+        Temp workaround by manually declaring the intrinsic with the correct function name instead.
+    */
+    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function(FN_NAME).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        let llvm_void = ctx.ctx.void_type();
+        let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
+        let llvm_p0i8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+        let fn_type = llvm_void.fn_type(&[llvm_p0i8.into()], false);
+
+        ctx.module.add_function(FN_NAME, fn_type, None)
+    });
+
+    ctx.builder.build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[ptr.into()], "").unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Invokes the [`llvm.memcpy`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-memcpy-intrinsic) intrinsic.
+///
+/// * `dest` - The pointer to the destination. Must be a pointer to an integer type.
+/// * `src` - The pointer to the source. Must be a pointer to an integer type.
+/// * `len` - The number of bytes to copy.
+/// * `is_volatile` - Whether the `memcpy` operation should be `volatile`.
+pub fn call_memcpy<'ctx>(
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    dest: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    src: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    len: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    is_volatile: IntValue<'ctx>,
+) {
+    const FN_NAME: &str = "llvm.memcpy";
+
+    debug_assert!(dest.get_type().get_element_type().is_int_type());
+    debug_assert!(src.get_type().get_element_type().is_int_type());
+    debug_assert_eq!(
+        dest.get_type().get_element_type().into_int_type().get_bit_width(),
+        src.get_type().get_element_type().into_int_type().get_bit_width(),
+    );
+    debug_assert!(matches!(len.get_type().get_bit_width(), 32 | 64));
+    debug_assert_eq!(is_volatile.get_type().get_bit_width(), 1);
+
+    let llvm_dest_t = dest.get_type();
+    let llvm_src_t = src.get_type();
+    let llvm_len_t = len.get_type();
+
+    let intrinsic_fn = Intrinsic::find(FN_NAME)
+        .and_then(|intrinsic| {
+            intrinsic.get_declaration(
+                &ctx.module,
+                &[llvm_dest_t.into(), llvm_src_t.into(), llvm_len_t.into()],
+            )
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[dest.into(), src.into(), len.into(), is_volatile.into()], "")
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+/// Invokes the `llvm.memcpy` intrinsic.
+///
+/// Unlike [`call_memcpy`], this function accepts any type of pointer value. If `dest` or `src` is
+/// not a pointer to an integer, the pointer(s) will be cast to `i8*` before invoking `memcpy`.
+pub fn call_memcpy_generic<'ctx>(
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    dest: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    src: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    len: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    is_volatile: IntValue<'ctx>,
+) {
+    let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
+    let llvm_p0i8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+    let dest_elem_t = dest.get_type().get_element_type();
+    let src_elem_t = src.get_type().get_element_type();
+
+    let dest = if matches!(dest_elem_t, IntType(t) if t.get_bit_width() == 8) {
+        dest
+    } else {
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_bit_cast(dest, llvm_p0i8, "")
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
+            .unwrap()
+    };
+    let src = if matches!(src_elem_t, IntType(t) if t.get_bit_width() == 8) {
+        src
+    } else {
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_bit_cast(src, llvm_p0i8, "")
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
+            .unwrap()
+    };
+
+    call_memcpy(ctx, dest, src, len, is_volatile);
+}
+
+/// Invokes the `llvm.memcpy` intrinsic.
+///
+/// Unlike [`call_memcpy`], this function accepts any type of pointer value. If `dest` or `src` is
+/// not a pointer to an integer, the pointer(s) will be cast to `i8*` before invoking `memcpy`.
+/// Moreover, `len` now refers to the number of elements to copy (rather than number of bytes to
+/// copy).
+pub fn call_memcpy_generic_array<'ctx>(
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    dest: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    src: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    len: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    is_volatile: IntValue<'ctx>,
+) {
+    let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
+    let llvm_p0i8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+    let llvm_sizeof_expr_t = llvm_i8.size_of().get_type();
+
+    let dest_elem_t = dest.get_type().get_element_type();
+    let src_elem_t = src.get_type().get_element_type();
+
+    let dest = if matches!(dest_elem_t, IntType(t) if t.get_bit_width() == 8) {
+        dest
+    } else {
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_bit_cast(dest, llvm_p0i8, "")
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
+            .unwrap()
+    };
+    let src = if matches!(src_elem_t, IntType(t) if t.get_bit_width() == 8) {
+        src
+    } else {
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_bit_cast(src, llvm_p0i8, "")
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
+            .unwrap()
+    };
+
+    let len = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(len, llvm_sizeof_expr_t, "").unwrap();
+    let len = ctx.builder.build_int_mul(len, src_elem_t.size_of().unwrap(), "").unwrap();
+
+    call_memcpy(ctx, dest, src, len, is_volatile);
+}
+
+/// Macro to find and generate build call for llvm intrinsic (body of llvm intrinsic function)
+///
+/// Arguments:
+/// * `$ctx:ident`: Reference to the current Code Generation Context
+/// * `$name:ident`: Optional name to be assigned to the llvm build call (Option<&str>)
+/// * `$llvm_name:literal`: Name of underlying llvm intrinsic function
+/// * `$map_fn:ident`: Mapping function to be applied on `BasicValue` (`BasicValue` -> Function Return Type).
+///   Use `BasicValueEnum::into_int_value` for Integer return type and
+///   `BasicValueEnum::into_float_value` for Float return type
+/// * `$llvm_ty:ident`: Type of first operand
+/// * `,($val:ident)*`: Comma separated list of operands
+macro_rules! generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn_body {
+    ($ctx:ident, $name:ident, $llvm_name:literal, $map_fn:expr, $llvm_ty:ident $(,$val:ident)*) => {{
+        const FN_NAME: &str = concat!("llvm.", $llvm_name);
+        let intrinsic_fn = Intrinsic::find(FN_NAME).and_then(|intrinsic| intrinsic.get_declaration(&$ctx.module, &[$llvm_ty.into()])).unwrap();
+        $ctx.builder.build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[$($val.into()),*],  $name.unwrap_or_default()).map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value).map(|v| v.map_left($map_fn)).map(Either::unwrap_left).unwrap()
+    }};
+}
+
+/// Macro to generate the llvm intrinsic function using [`generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn_body`].
+///
+/// Arguments:
+/// * `float/int`: Indicates the return and argument type of the function
+/// * `$fn_name:ident`: The identifier of the rust function to be generated
+/// * `$llvm_name:literal`: Name of underlying llvm intrinsic function.
+///   Omit "llvm." prefix from the function name i.e. use "ceil" instead of "llvm.ceil"
+/// * `$val:ident`: The operand for unary operations
+/// * `$val1:ident`, `$val2:ident`: The operands for binary operations
+macro_rules! generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn {
+    ("float", $fn_name:ident, $llvm_name:literal, $val:ident) => {
+        #[doc = concat!("Invokes the [`", stringify!($llvm_name), "`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-", stringify!($llvm_name), "-intrinsic) intrinsic." )]
+        pub fn $fn_name<'ctx> (
+            ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+            $val: FloatValue<'ctx>,
+            name: Option<&str>,
+        ) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
+            let llvm_ty = $val.get_type();
+            generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn_body!(ctx, name, $llvm_name, BasicValueEnum::into_float_value, llvm_ty, $val)
+        }
+    };
+    ("float", $fn_name:ident, $llvm_name:literal, $val1:ident, $val2:ident) => {
+        #[doc = concat!("Invokes the [`", stringify!($llvm_name), "`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-", stringify!($llvm_name), "-intrinsic) intrinsic." )]
+        pub fn $fn_name<'ctx> (
+            ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+            $val1: FloatValue<'ctx>,
+            $val2: FloatValue<'ctx>,
+            name: Option<&str>,
+        ) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
+            debug_assert_eq!($val1.get_type(), $val2.get_type());
+            let llvm_ty = $val1.get_type();
+            generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn_body!(ctx, name, $llvm_name, BasicValueEnum::into_float_value, llvm_ty, $val1, $val2)
+        }
+    };
+    ("int", $fn_name:ident, $llvm_name:literal, $val1:ident, $val2:ident) => {
+        #[doc = concat!("Invokes the [`", stringify!($llvm_name), "`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-", stringify!($llvm_name), "-intrinsic) intrinsic." )]
+        pub fn $fn_name<'ctx> (
+            ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+            $val1: IntValue<'ctx>,
+            $val2: IntValue<'ctx>,
+            name: Option<&str>,
+        ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+            debug_assert_eq!($val1.get_type().get_bit_width(), $val2.get_type().get_bit_width());
+            let llvm_ty = $val1.get_type();
+            generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn_body!(ctx, name, $llvm_name, BasicValueEnum::into_int_value, llvm_ty, $val1, $val2)
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+/// Invokes the [`llvm.abs`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-abs-intrinsic) intrinsic.
+///
+/// * `src` - The value for which the absolute value is to be returned.
+/// * `is_int_min_poison` - Whether `poison` is to be returned if `src` is `INT_MIN`.
+pub fn call_int_abs<'ctx>(
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    src: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    is_int_min_poison: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&str>,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    debug_assert_eq!(is_int_min_poison.get_type().get_bit_width(), 1);
+    debug_assert!(is_int_min_poison.is_const());
+
+    let src_type = src.get_type();
+    generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn_body!(
+        ctx,
+        name,
+        "abs",
+        BasicValueEnum::into_int_value,
+        src_type,
+        src,
+        is_int_min_poison
+    )
+}
+
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("int", call_int_smax, "smax", a, b);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("int", call_int_smin, "smin", a, b);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("int", call_int_umax, "umax", a, b);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("int", call_int_umin, "umin", a, b);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("int", call_expect, "expect", val, expected_val);
+
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_sqrt, "sqrt", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_sin, "sin", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_cos, "cos", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_pow, "pow", val, power);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_exp, "exp", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_exp2, "exp2", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_log, "log", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_log10, "log10", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_log2, "log2", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_fabs, "fabs", src);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_minnum, "minnum", val, power);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_maxnum, "maxnum", val, power);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_copysign, "copysign", mag, sgn);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_floor, "floor", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_ceil, "ceil", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_round, "round", val);
+generate_llvm_intrinsic_fn!("float", call_float_rint, "rint", val);
+
+/// Invokes the [`llvm.powi`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-powi-intrinsic) intrinsic.
+pub fn call_float_powi<'ctx>(
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    val: FloatValue<'ctx>,
+    power: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&str>,
+) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
+    const FN_NAME: &str = "llvm.powi";
+
+    let llvm_val_t = val.get_type();
+    let llvm_power_t = power.get_type();
+
+    let intrinsic_fn = Intrinsic::find(FN_NAME)
+        .and_then(|intrinsic| {
+            intrinsic.get_declaration(&ctx.module, &[llvm_val_t.into(), llvm_power_t.into()])
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[val.into(), power.into()], name.unwrap_or_default())
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Invokes the [`llvm.ctpop`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-ctpop-intrinsic) intrinsic.
+pub fn call_int_ctpop<'ctx>(
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    src: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&str>,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    const FN_NAME: &str = "llvm.ctpop";
+
+    let llvm_src_t = src.get_type();
+
+    let intrinsic_fn = Intrinsic::find(FN_NAME)
+        .and_then(|intrinsic| intrinsic.get_declaration(&ctx.module, &[llvm_src_t.into()]))
+        .unwrap();
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[src.into()], name.unwrap_or_default())
+        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
+        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
+        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
+        .unwrap()
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/mod.rs

@@ -1,50 +1,79 @@
-use crate::{
+use std::{
-    symbol_resolver::{StaticValue, SymbolResolver},
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-    toplevel::{TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef},
+    sync::{
-    typecheck::{
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
-        type_inferencer::{CodeLocation, PrimitiveStore},
+        Arc,
-        typedef::{CallId, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier},
     },
+    thread,
 };
+
 use crossbeam::channel::{unbounded, Receiver, Sender};
 use inkwell::{
-    AddressSpace,
-    IntPredicate,
-    OptimizationLevel,
     attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
     basic_block::BasicBlock,
     builder::Builder,
     context::Context,
+    debug_info::{
+        AsDIScope, DICompileUnit, DIFlagsConstants, DIScope, DISubprogram, DebugInfoBuilder,
+    },
     module::Module,
     passes::PassBuilderOptions,
     targets::{CodeModel, RelocMode, Target, TargetMachine, TargetTriple},
     types::{AnyType, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
     values::{BasicValueEnum, FunctionValue, IntValue, PhiValue, PointerValue},
-    debug_info::{
+    AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
-        DebugInfoBuilder, DICompileUnit, DISubprogram, AsDIScope, DIFlagsConstants, DIScope
-    },
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use nac3parser::ast::{Stmt, StrRef, Location};
 use parking_lot::{Condvar, Mutex};
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
-use std::sync::{
-    atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
-    Arc,
-};
-use std::thread;
 
+use nac3parser::ast::{Location, Stmt, StrRef};
+
+use crate::{
+    symbol_resolver::{StaticValue, SymbolResolver},
+    toplevel::{
+        helper::{extract_ndims, PrimDef},
+        numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys,
+        TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef,
+    },
+    typecheck::{
+        type_inferencer::{CodeLocation, PrimitiveStore},
+        typedef::{CallId, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier},
+    },
+};
+use concrete_type::{ConcreteType, ConcreteTypeEnum, ConcreteTypeStore};
+pub use generator::{CodeGenerator, DefaultCodeGenerator};
+use types::{ndarray::NDArrayType, ListType, ProxyType, RangeType};
+
+pub mod builtin_fns;
 pub mod concrete_type;
 pub mod expr;
+pub mod extern_fns;
 mod generator;
 pub mod irrt;
+pub mod llvm_intrinsics;
+pub mod numpy;
 pub mod stmt;
+pub mod types;
+pub mod values;
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test;
 
-use concrete_type::{ConcreteType, ConcreteTypeEnum, ConcreteTypeStore};
+mod macros {
-pub use generator::{CodeGenerator, DefaultCodeGenerator};
+    /// Codegen-variant of [`std::unreachable`] which accepts an instance of [`CodeGenContext`] as
+    /// its first argument to provide Python source information to indicate the codegen location
+    /// causing the assertion.
+    macro_rules! codegen_unreachable {
+        ($ctx:expr $(,)?) => {
+            std::unreachable!("unreachable code while processing {}", &$ctx.current_loc)
+        };
+        ($ctx:expr, $($arg:tt)*) => {
+            std::unreachable!("unreachable code while processing {}: {}", &$ctx.current_loc, std::format!("{}", std::format_args!($($arg)+)))
+        };
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) use codegen_unreachable;
+}
 
 #[derive(Default)]
 pub struct StaticValueStore {
@@ -64,6 +93,16 @@ pub struct CodeGenLLVMOptions {
     pub target: CodeGenTargetMachineOptions,
 }
 
+impl CodeGenLLVMOptions {
+    /// Creates a [`TargetMachine`] using the target options specified by this struct.
+    ///
+    /// See [`Target::create_target_machine`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn create_target_machine(&self) -> Option<TargetMachine> {
+        self.target.create_target_machine(self.opt_level)
+    }
+}
+
 /// Additional options for code generation for the target machine.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
 pub struct CodeGenTargetMachineOptions {
@@ -80,7 +119,6 @@ pub struct CodeGenTargetMachineOptions {
 }
 
 impl CodeGenTargetMachineOptions {
-
     /// Creates an instance of [`CodeGenTargetMachineOptions`] using the triple of the host machine.
     /// Other options are set to defaults.
     #[must_use]
@@ -109,13 +147,11 @@ impl CodeGenTargetMachineOptions {
     ///
     /// See [`Target::create_target_machine`].
     #[must_use]
-    pub fn create_target_machine(
+    pub fn create_target_machine(&self, level: OptimizationLevel) -> Option<TargetMachine> {
-        &self,
-        level: OptimizationLevel,
-    ) -> Option<TargetMachine> {
         let triple = TargetTriple::create(self.triple.as_str());
-        let target = Target::from_triple(&triple)
+        let target = Target::from_triple(&triple).unwrap_or_else(|_| {
-            .unwrap_or_else(|_| panic!("could not create target from target triple {}", self.triple));
+            panic!("could not create target from target triple {}", self.triple)
+        });
 
         target.create_target_machine(
             &triple,
@@ -123,7 +159,7 @@ impl CodeGenTargetMachineOptions {
             self.features.as_str(),
             level,
             self.reloc_mode,
-            self.code_model
+            self.code_model,
         )
     }
 }
@@ -134,24 +170,23 @@ pub struct CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a> {
 
     /// The [Builder] instance for creating LLVM IR statements.
     pub builder: Builder<'ctx>,
-    /// The [DebugInfoBuilder], [compilation unit information][DICompileUnit], and
+    /// The [`DebugInfoBuilder`], [compilation unit information][DICompileUnit], and
     /// [scope information][DIScope] of this context.
     pub debug_info: (DebugInfoBuilder<'ctx>, DICompileUnit<'ctx>, DIScope<'ctx>),
 
     /// The module for which [this context][CodeGenContext] is generating into.
     pub module: Module<'ctx>,
 
-    /// The [TopLevelContext] associated with [this context][CodeGenContext].
+    /// The [`TopLevelContext`] associated with [this context][CodeGenContext].
     pub top_level: &'a TopLevelContext,
     pub unifier: Unifier,
     pub resolver: Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>,
     pub static_value_store: Arc<Mutex<StaticValueStore>>,
 
-    /// A [HashMap] containing the mapping between the names of variables currently in-scope and
+    /// A [`HashMap`] containing the mapping between the names of variables currently in-scope and
     /// its value information.
     pub var_assignment: HashMap<StrRef, VarValue<'ctx>>,
 
-    ///
     pub type_cache: HashMap<Type, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
     pub primitives: PrimitiveStore,
     pub calls: Arc<HashMap<CodeLocation, CallId>>,
@@ -160,24 +195,24 @@ pub struct CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a> {
     /// Cache for constant strings.
     pub const_strings: HashMap<String, BasicValueEnum<'ctx>>,
 
-    /// [BasicBlock] containing all `alloca` statements for the current function.
+    /// [`BasicBlock`] containing all `alloca` statements for the current function.
     pub init_bb: BasicBlock<'ctx>,
     pub exception_val: Option<PointerValue<'ctx>>,
 
     /// The header and exit basic blocks of a loop in this context. See
-    /// https://llvm.org/docs/LoopTerminology.html for explanation of these terminology.
+    /// <https://llvm.org/docs/LoopTerminology.html> for explanation of these terminology.
     pub loop_target: Option<(BasicBlock<'ctx>, BasicBlock<'ctx>)>,
 
-    /// The target [BasicBlock] to jump to when performing stack unwind.
+    /// The target [`BasicBlock`] to jump to when performing stack unwind.
     pub unwind_target: Option<BasicBlock<'ctx>>,
 
-    /// The target [BasicBlock] to jump to before returning from the function.
+    /// The target [`BasicBlock`] to jump to before returning from the function.
     ///
     /// If this field is [None] when generating a return from a function, `ret` with no argument can
     /// be emitted.
     pub return_target: Option<BasicBlock<'ctx>>,
 
-    /// The [PointerValue] containing the return value of the function.
+    /// The [`PointerValue`] containing the return value of the function.
     pub return_buffer: Option<PointerValue<'ctx>>,
 
     // outer catch clauses
@@ -186,7 +221,7 @@ pub struct CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a> {
 
     /// Whether `sret` is needed for the first parameter of the function.
     ///
-    /// See [need_sret].
+    /// See [`need_sret`].
     pub need_sret: bool,
 
     /// The current source location.
@@ -194,7 +229,6 @@ pub struct CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a> {
 }
 
 impl<'ctx, 'a> CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a> {
-
     /// Whether the [current basic block][Builder::get_insert_block] referenced by `builder`
     /// contains a [terminator statement][BasicBlock::get_terminator].
     pub fn is_terminated(&self) -> bool {
@@ -236,11 +270,10 @@ pub struct WorkerRegistry {
     static_value_store: Arc<Mutex<StaticValueStore>>,
 
     /// LLVM-related options for code generation.
-    llvm_options: CodeGenLLVMOptions,
+    pub llvm_options: CodeGenLLVMOptions,
 }
 
 impl WorkerRegistry {
-
     /// Creates workers for this registry.
     #[must_use]
     pub fn create_workers<G: CodeGenerator + Send + 'static>(
@@ -275,9 +308,15 @@ impl WorkerRegistry {
             let registry = registry.clone();
             let registry2 = registry.clone();
             let f = f.clone();
-            let handle = thread::spawn(move || {
+
-                registry.worker_thread(generator.as_mut(), &f);
+            let worker_thread_name =
-            });
+                format!("codegen-worker-{worker_id}", worker_id = generator.get_name());
+            let handle = thread::Builder::new()
+                .name(worker_thread_name)
+                .spawn(move || {
+                    registry.worker_thread(generator.as_mut(), &f);
+                })
+                .unwrap();
             let handle = thread::spawn(move || {
                 if let Err(e) = handle.join() {
                     if let Some(e) = e.downcast_ref::<&'static str>() {
@@ -334,6 +373,10 @@ impl WorkerRegistry {
         let mut builder = context.create_builder();
         let mut module = context.create_module(generator.get_name());
 
+        let target_machine = self.llvm_options.create_target_machine().unwrap();
+        module.set_data_layout(&target_machine.get_target_data().get_data_layout());
+        module.set_triple(&target_machine.get_triple());
+
         module.add_basic_value_flag(
             "Debug Info Version",
             inkwell::module::FlagBehavior::Warning,
@@ -357,12 +400,20 @@ impl WorkerRegistry {
                     errors.insert(e);
                     // create a new empty module just to continue codegen and collect errors
                     module = context.create_module(&format!("{}_recover", generator.get_name()));
+
+                    let target_machine = self.llvm_options.create_target_machine().unwrap();
+                    module.set_data_layout(&target_machine.get_target_data().get_data_layout());
+                    module.set_triple(&target_machine.get_triple());
                 }
             }
             *self.task_count.lock() -= 1;
             self.wait_condvar.notify_all();
         }
-        assert!(errors.is_empty(), "Codegen error: {}", errors.into_iter().sorted().join("\n----------\n"));
+        assert!(
+            errors.is_empty(),
+            "Codegen error: {}",
+            errors.into_iter().sorted().join("\n----------\n")
+        );
 
         let result = module.verify();
         if let Err(err) = result {
@@ -375,13 +426,20 @@ impl WorkerRegistry {
             .llvm_options
             .target
             .create_target_machine(self.llvm_options.opt_level)
-            .unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("could not create target machine from properties {:?}", self.llvm_options.target));
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                panic!(
+                    "could not create target machine from properties {:?}",
+                    self.llvm_options.target
+                )
+            });
         let passes = format!("default<O{}>", self.llvm_options.opt_level as u32);
         let result = module.run_passes(passes.as_str(), &target_machine, pass_options);
         if let Err(err) = result {
-            panic!("Failed to run optimization for module `{}`: {}",
+            panic!(
-                   module.get_name().to_str().unwrap(),
+                "Failed to run optimization for module `{}`: {}",
-                   err.to_string());
+                module.get_name().to_str().unwrap(),
+                err.to_string()
+            );
         }
 
         f.run(&module);
@@ -407,14 +465,14 @@ pub struct CodeGenTask {
 ///
 /// This function is used to obtain the in-memory representation of `ty`, e.g. a `bool` variable
 /// would be represented by an `i8`.
-fn get_llvm_type<'ctx>(
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn get_llvm_type<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
     ctx: &'ctx Context,
     module: &Module<'ctx>,
-    generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
+    generator: &G,
     unifier: &mut Unifier,
     top_level: &TopLevelContext,
     type_cache: &mut HashMap<Type, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
-    primitives: &PrimitiveStore,
     ty: Type,
 ) -> BasicTypeEnum<'ctx> {
     use TypeEnum::*;
@@ -424,29 +482,52 @@ fn get_llvm_type<'ctx>(
         let ty_enum = unifier.get_ty(ty);
         let result = match &*ty_enum {
             TObj { obj_id, fields, .. } => {
-                // check to avoid treating primitives other than Option as classes
+                // check to avoid treating non-class primitives as classes
-                if obj_id.0 <= 10 {
+                if PrimDef::contains_id(*obj_id) {
-                    match (unifier.get_ty(ty).as_ref(), unifier.get_ty(primitives.option).as_ref())
+                    return match &*unifier.get_ty_immutable(ty) {
-                    {
+                        TObj { obj_id, params, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::Option.id() => {
-                        (
+                            get_llvm_type(
-                            TObj { obj_id, params, .. },
-                            TObj { obj_id: opt_id, .. },
-                        ) if *obj_id == *opt_id => {
-                            return get_llvm_type(
                                 ctx,
                                 module,
                                 generator,
                                 unifier,
                                 top_level,
                                 type_cache,
-                                primitives,
                                 *params.iter().next().unwrap().1,
                             )
                             .ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
-                            .into();
+                            .into()
                         }
-                        _ => unreachable!("must be option type"),
+
-                    }
+                        TObj { obj_id, params, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::List.id() => {
+                            let element_type = get_llvm_type(
+                                ctx,
+                                module,
+                                generator,
+                                unifier,
+                                top_level,
+                                type_cache,
+                                *params.iter().next().unwrap().1,
+                            );
+
+                            ListType::new(generator, ctx, element_type).as_base_type().into()
+                        }
+
+                        TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
+                            let (dtype, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(unifier, ty);
+                            let ndims = extract_ndims(unifier, ndims);
+                            let element_type = get_llvm_type(
+                                ctx, module, generator, unifier, top_level, type_cache, dtype,
+                            );
+
+                            NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx, element_type, Some(ndims)).as_base_type().into()
+                        }
+
+                        _ => unreachable!(
+                            "LLVM type for primitive {} is missing",
+                            unifier.stringify(ty)
+                        ),
+                    };
                 }
                 // a struct with fields in the order of declaration
                 let top_level_defs = top_level.definitions.read();
@@ -462,7 +543,7 @@ fn get_llvm_type<'ctx>(
                     let struct_type = ctx.opaque_struct_type(&name);
                     type_cache.insert(
                         unifier.get_representative(ty),
-                        struct_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into()
+                        struct_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(),
                     );
                     let fields = fields_list
                         .iter()
@@ -474,7 +555,6 @@ fn get_llvm_type<'ctx>(
                                 unifier,
                                 top_level,
                                 type_cache,
-                                primitives,
                                 fields[&f.0].0,
                             )
                         })
@@ -482,31 +562,20 @@ fn get_llvm_type<'ctx>(
                     struct_type.set_body(&fields, false);
                     struct_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into()
                 };
-                return ty
+                return ty;
             }
-            TTuple { ty } => {
+            TTuple { ty, is_vararg_ctx } => {
                 // a struct with fields in the order present in the tuple
+                assert!(!is_vararg_ctx, "Tuples in vararg context must be instantiated with the correct number of arguments before calling get_llvm_type");
+
                 let fields = ty
                     .iter()
                     .map(|ty| {
-                        get_llvm_type(
+                        get_llvm_type(ctx, module, generator, unifier, top_level, type_cache, *ty)
-                            ctx, module, generator, unifier, top_level, type_cache, primitives, *ty,
-                        )
                     })
                     .collect_vec();
                 ctx.struct_type(&fields, false).into()
             }
-            TList { ty } => {
-                // a struct with an integer and a pointer to an array
-                let element_type = get_llvm_type(
-                    ctx, module, generator, unifier, top_level, type_cache, primitives, *ty,
-                );
-                let fields = [
-                    element_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(),
-                    generator.get_size_type(ctx).into(),
-                ];
-                ctx.struct_type(&fields, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into()
-            }
             TVirtual { .. } => unimplemented!(),
             _ => unreachable!("{}", ty_enum.get_type_name()),
         };
@@ -524,10 +593,11 @@ fn get_llvm_type<'ctx>(
 /// ABI representation is that the in-memory representation must be at least byte-sized and must
 /// be byte-aligned for the variable to be addressable in memory, whereas there is no such
 /// restriction for ABI representations.
-fn get_llvm_abi_type<'ctx>(
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn get_llvm_abi_type<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
     ctx: &'ctx Context,
     module: &Module<'ctx>,
-    generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
+    generator: &G,
     unifier: &mut Unifier,
     top_level: &TopLevelContext,
     type_cache: &mut HashMap<Type, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
@@ -536,10 +606,10 @@ fn get_llvm_abi_type<'ctx>(
 ) -> BasicTypeEnum<'ctx> {
     // If the type is used in the definition of a function, return `i1` instead of `i8` for ABI
     // consistency.
-    return if unifier.unioned(ty, primitives.bool) {
+    if unifier.unioned(ty, primitives.bool) {
         ctx.bool_type().into()
     } else {
-        get_llvm_type(ctx, module, generator, unifier, top_level, type_cache, primitives, ty)
+        get_llvm_type(ctx, module, generator, unifier, top_level, type_cache, ty)
     }
 }
 
@@ -556,23 +626,62 @@ fn need_sret(ty: BasicTypeEnum) -> bool {
         match ty {
             BasicTypeEnum::IntType(_) | BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(_) => false,
             BasicTypeEnum::FloatType(_) if maybe_large => false,
-            BasicTypeEnum::StructType(ty) if maybe_large && ty.count_fields() <= 2 =>
+            BasicTypeEnum::StructType(ty) if maybe_large && ty.count_fields() <= 2 => {
-                ty.get_field_types().iter().any(|ty| need_sret_impl(*ty, false)),
+                ty.get_field_types().iter().any(|ty| need_sret_impl(*ty, false))
+            }
             _ => true,
         }
     }
     need_sret_impl(ty, true)
 }
 
+/// Returns the [`BasicTypeEnum`] representing a `va_list` struct for variadic arguments.
+fn get_llvm_valist_type<'ctx>(ctx: &'ctx Context, triple: &TargetTriple) -> BasicTypeEnum<'ctx> {
+    let triple = TargetMachine::normalize_triple(triple);
+    let triple = triple.as_str().to_str().unwrap();
+    let arch = triple.split('-').next().unwrap();
+
+    let llvm_pi8 = ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+    // Referenced from parseArch() in llvm/lib/Support/Triple.cpp
+    match arch {
+        "i386" | "i486" | "i586" | "i686" | "riscv32" => {
+            ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into()
+        }
+        "amd64" | "x86_64" | "x86_64h" => {
+            let llvm_i32 = ctx.i32_type();
+
+            let va_list_tag = ctx.opaque_struct_type("struct.__va_list_tag");
+            va_list_tag.set_body(
+                &[llvm_i32.into(), llvm_i32.into(), llvm_pi8.into(), llvm_pi8.into()],
+                false,
+            );
+            va_list_tag.into()
+        }
+        "armv7" => {
+            let va_list = ctx.opaque_struct_type("struct.__va_list");
+            va_list.set_body(&[llvm_pi8.into()], false);
+            va_list.into()
+        }
+        triple => {
+            todo!("Unsupported platform for varargs: {triple}")
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// Implementation for generating LLVM IR for a function.
-pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenContext) -> Result<(), String>> (
+pub fn gen_func_impl<
+    'ctx,
+    G: CodeGenerator,
+    F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenContext) -> Result<(), String>,
+>(
     context: &'ctx Context,
     generator: &mut G,
     registry: &WorkerRegistry,
     builder: Builder<'ctx>,
     module: Module<'ctx>,
     task: CodeGenTask,
-    codegen_function: F
+    codegen_function: F,
 ) -> Result<(Builder<'ctx>, Module<'ctx>, FunctionValue<'ctx>), (Builder<'ctx>, String)> {
     let top_level_ctx = registry.top_level_ctx.clone();
     let static_value_store = registry.static_value_store.clone();
@@ -580,6 +689,7 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
         let (unifier, primitives) = &top_level_ctx.unifiers.read()[task.unifier_index];
         (Unifier::from_shared_unifier(unifier), *primitives)
     };
+    unifier.put_primitive_store(&primitives);
     unifier.top_level = Some(top_level_ctx.clone());
 
     let mut cache = HashMap::new();
@@ -613,6 +723,7 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
         str: unifier.get_representative(primitives.str),
         exception: unifier.get_representative(primitives.exception),
         option: unifier.get_representative(primitives.option),
+        ..primitives
     };
 
     let mut type_cache: HashMap<_, _> = [
@@ -634,10 +745,10 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
                     str_type.set_body(&fields, false);
                     str_type.into()
                 }
-                Some(t) => t.as_basic_type_enum()
+                Some(t) => t.as_basic_type_enum(),
             }
         }),
-        (primitives.range, context.i32_type().array_type(3).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into()),
+        (primitives.range, RangeType::new(context).as_base_type().into()),
         (primitives.exception, {
             let name = "Exception";
             if let Some(t) = module.get_struct_type(name) {
@@ -651,7 +762,7 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
                 exception.set_body(&fields, false);
                 exception.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).as_basic_type_enum()
             }
-        })
+        }),
     ]
     .iter()
     .copied()
@@ -659,8 +770,7 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
     // NOTE: special handling of option cannot use this type cache since it contains type var,
     // handled inside get_llvm_type instead
 
-    let ConcreteTypeEnum::TFunc { args, ret, .. } =
+    let ConcreteTypeEnum::TFunc { args, ret, .. } = task.store.get(task.signature) else {
-        task.store.get(task.signature) else {
         unreachable!()
     };
 
@@ -670,6 +780,7 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
                 name: arg.name,
                 ty: task.store.to_unifier_type(&mut unifier, &primitives, arg.ty, &mut cache),
                 default_value: arg.default_value.clone(),
+                is_vararg: arg.is_vararg,
             })
             .collect_vec(),
         task.store.to_unifier_type(&mut unifier, &primitives, *ret, &mut cache),
@@ -677,13 +788,25 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
     let ret_type = if unifier.unioned(ret, primitives.none) {
         None
     } else {
-        Some(get_llvm_abi_type(context, &module, generator, &mut unifier, top_level_ctx.as_ref(), &mut type_cache, &primitives, ret))
+        Some(get_llvm_abi_type(
+            context,
+            &module,
+            generator,
+            &mut unifier,
+            top_level_ctx.as_ref(),
+            &mut type_cache,
+            &primitives,
+            ret,
+        ))
     };
 
     let has_sret = ret_type.map_or(false, |ty| need_sret(ty));
     let mut params = args
         .iter()
+        .filter(|arg| !arg.is_vararg)
         .map(|arg| {
+            debug_assert!(!arg.is_vararg);
+
             get_llvm_abi_type(
                 context,
                 &module,
@@ -702,9 +825,12 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
         params.insert(0, ret_type.unwrap().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into());
     }
 
+    debug_assert!(matches!(args.iter().filter(|arg| arg.is_vararg).count(), 0..=1));
+    let vararg_arg = args.iter().find(|arg| arg.is_vararg);
+
     let fn_type = match ret_type {
-        Some(ret_type) if !has_sret => ret_type.fn_type(&params, false),
+        Some(ret_type) if !has_sret => ret_type.fn_type(&params, vararg_arg.is_some()),
-        _ => context.void_type().fn_type(&params, false)
+        _ => context.void_type().fn_type(&params, vararg_arg.is_some()),
     };
 
     let symbol = &task.symbol_name;
@@ -719,18 +845,23 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
         fn_val.set_personality_function(personality);
     }
     if has_sret {
-        fn_val.add_attribute(AttributeLoc::Param(0),
+        fn_val.add_attribute(
-            context.create_type_attribute(Attribute::get_named_enum_kind_id("sret"),
+            AttributeLoc::Param(0),
-            ret_type.unwrap().as_any_type_enum()));
+            context.create_type_attribute(
+                Attribute::get_named_enum_kind_id("sret"),
+                ret_type.unwrap().as_any_type_enum(),
+            ),
+        );
     }
 
     let init_bb = context.append_basic_block(fn_val, "init");
     builder.position_at_end(init_bb);
     let body_bb = context.append_basic_block(fn_val, "body");
 
+    // Store non-vararg argument values into local variables
     let mut var_assignment = HashMap::new();
     let offset = u32::from(has_sret);
-    for (n, arg) in args.iter().enumerate() {
+    for (n, arg) in args.iter().enumerate().filter(|(_, arg)| !arg.is_vararg) {
         let param = fn_val.get_nth_param((n as u32) + offset).unwrap();
         let local_type = get_llvm_type(
             context,
@@ -739,13 +870,10 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
             &mut unifier,
             top_level_ctx.as_ref(),
             &mut type_cache,
-            &primitives,
             arg.ty,
         );
-        let alloca = builder.build_alloca(
+        let alloca =
-            local_type,
+            builder.build_alloca(local_type, &format!("{}.addr", &arg.name.to_string())).unwrap();
-            &format!("{}.addr", &arg.name.to_string()),
-        );
 
         // Remap boolean parameters into i8
         let param = if local_type.is_int_type() && param.is_int_value() {
@@ -756,19 +884,22 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
                 bool_to_i8(&builder, context, param_val)
             } else {
                 param_val
-            }.into()
+            }
+            .into()
         } else {
             param
         };
 
-        builder.build_store(alloca, param);
+        builder.build_store(alloca, param).unwrap();
         var_assignment.insert(arg.name, (alloca, None, 0));
     }
 
+    // TODO: Save vararg parameters as list
+
     let return_buffer = if has_sret {
         Some(fn_val.get_nth_param(0).unwrap().into_pointer_value())
     } else {
-        fn_type.get_return_type().map(|v| builder.build_alloca(v, "$ret"))
+        fn_type.get_return_type().map(|v| builder.build_alloca(v, "$ret").unwrap())
     };
 
     let static_values = {
@@ -780,7 +911,7 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
         *static_val = Some(v);
     }
 
-    builder.build_unconditional_branch(body_bb);
+    builder.build_unconditional_branch(body_bb).unwrap();
     builder.position_at_end(body_bb);
 
     let (dibuilder, compile_unit) = module.create_debug_info_builder(
@@ -789,11 +920,8 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
         /* filename */
         &task
             .body
-            .get(0)
+            .first()
-            .map_or_else(
+            .map_or_else(|| "<nac3_internal>".to_string(), |f| f.location.file.0.to_string()),
-                || "<nac3_internal>".to_string(),
-                |f| f.location.file.0.to_string(),
-            ),
         /* directory */ "",
         /* producer */ "NAC3",
         /* is_optimized */ registry.llvm_options.opt_level != OptimizationLevel::None,
@@ -819,7 +947,7 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
         inkwell::debug_info::DIFlags::PUBLIC,
     );
     let (row, col) =
-        task.body.get(0).map_or_else(|| (0, 0), |b| (b.location.row, b.location.column));
+        task.body.first().map_or_else(|| (0, 0), |b| (b.location.row, b.location.column));
     let func_scope: DISubprogram<'_> = dibuilder.create_function(
         /* scope */ compile_unit.as_debug_info_scope(),
         /* func name */ symbol,
@@ -866,15 +994,15 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator, F: FnOnce(&mut G, &mut CodeGenConte
         row as u32,
         col as u32,
         func_scope.as_debug_info_scope(),
-        None
+        None,
     );
     code_gen_context.builder.set_current_debug_location(loc);
-    
+
     let result = codegen_function(generator, &mut code_gen_context);
 
     // after static analysis, only void functions can have no return at the end.
     if !code_gen_context.is_terminated() {
-        code_gen_context.builder.build_return(None);
+        code_gen_context.builder.build_return(None).unwrap();
     }
 
     code_gen_context.builder.unset_current_debug_location();
@@ -916,12 +1044,14 @@ fn bool_to_i1<'ctx>(builder: &Builder<'ctx>, bool_value: IntValue<'ctx>) -> IntV
     if bool_value.get_type().get_bit_width() == 1 {
         bool_value
     } else {
-        builder.build_int_compare(
+        builder
-            IntPredicate::NE,
+            .build_int_compare(
-            bool_value,
+                IntPredicate::NE,
-            bool_value.get_type().const_zero(),
+                bool_value,
-            "tobool"
+                bool_value.get_type().const_zero(),
-        )
+                "tobool",
+            )
+            .unwrap()
     }
 }
 
@@ -929,21 +1059,23 @@ fn bool_to_i1<'ctx>(builder: &Builder<'ctx>, bool_value: IntValue<'ctx>) -> IntV
 fn bool_to_i8<'ctx>(
     builder: &Builder<'ctx>,
     ctx: &'ctx Context,
-    bool_value: IntValue<'ctx>
+    bool_value: IntValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
     let value_bits = bool_value.get_type().get_bit_width();
     match value_bits {
         8 => bool_value,
-        1 => builder.build_int_z_extend(bool_value, ctx.i8_type(), "frombool"),
+        1 => builder.build_int_z_extend(bool_value, ctx.i8_type(), "frombool").unwrap(),
         _ => bool_to_i8(
             builder,
             ctx,
-            builder.build_int_compare(
+            builder
-                IntPredicate::NE,
+                .build_int_compare(
-                bool_value,
+                    IntPredicate::NE,
-                bool_value.get_type().const_zero(),
+                    bool_value,
-                ""
+                    bool_value.get_type().const_zero(),
-            )
+                    "",
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
         ),
     }
 }
@@ -969,9 +1101,129 @@ fn gen_in_range_check<'ctx>(
     stop: IntValue<'ctx>,
     step: IntValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
-    let sign = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SGT, step, ctx.ctx.i32_type().const_zero(), "");
+    let sign = ctx
-    let lo = ctx.builder.build_select(sign, value, stop, "").into_int_value();
+        .builder
-    let hi = ctx.builder.build_select(sign, stop, value, "").into_int_value();
+        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SGT, step, ctx.ctx.i32_type().const_zero(), "")
+        .unwrap();
+    let lo = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_select(sign, value, stop, "")
+        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+        .unwrap();
+    let hi = ctx
+        .builder
+        .build_select(sign, stop, value, "")
+        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+        .unwrap();
 
-    ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, lo, hi, "cmp")
+    ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, lo, hi, "cmp").unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Returns the internal name for the `va_count` argument, used to indicate the number of arguments
+/// passed to the variadic function.
+fn get_va_count_arg_name(arg_name: StrRef) -> StrRef {
+    format!("__{}_va_count", &arg_name).into()
+}
+
+/// Returns the alignment of the type.
+///
+/// This is necessary as `get_alignment` is not implemented as part of [`BasicType`].
+pub fn get_type_alignment<'ctx>(ty: impl Into<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+    match ty.into() {
+        BasicTypeEnum::ArrayType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
+        BasicTypeEnum::FloatType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
+        BasicTypeEnum::IntType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
+        BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
+        BasicTypeEnum::StructType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
+        BasicTypeEnum::VectorType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Inserts an `alloca` instruction with allocation `size` given in bytes and the alignment of the
+/// given type.
+///
+/// The returned [`PointerValue`] will have a type of `i8*`, a size of at least `size`, and will be
+/// aligned with the alignment of `align_ty`.
+pub fn type_aligned_alloca<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    align_ty: impl Into<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
+    size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&str>,
+) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Round `val` up to its modulo `power_of_two`.
+    fn round_up<'ctx>(
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        val: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        power_of_two: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        debug_assert_eq!(
+            val.get_type().get_bit_width(),
+            power_of_two.get_type().get_bit_width(),
+            "`val` ({}) and `power_of_two` ({}) must be the same type",
+            val.get_type(),
+            power_of_two.get_type(),
+        );
+
+        let llvm_val_t = val.get_type();
+
+        let max_rem =
+            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(power_of_two, llvm_val_t.const_int(1, false), "").unwrap();
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_and(
+                ctx.builder.build_int_add(val, max_rem, "").unwrap(),
+                ctx.builder.build_not(max_rem, "").unwrap(),
+                "",
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
+    let llvm_pi8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+    let align_ty = align_ty.into();
+
+    let size = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(size, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
+
+    debug_assert_eq!(
+        size.get_type().get_bit_width(),
+        llvm_usize.get_bit_width(),
+        "Expected size_t ({}) for parameter `size` of `aligned_alloca`, got {}",
+        llvm_usize,
+        size.get_type(),
+    );
+
+    let alignment = get_type_alignment(align_ty);
+    let alignment = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(alignment, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
+
+    if ctx.registry.llvm_options.opt_level == OptimizationLevel::None {
+        let alignment_bitcount = llvm_intrinsics::call_int_ctpop(ctx, alignment, None);
+
+        ctx.make_assert(
+            generator,
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_int_compare(
+                    IntPredicate::EQ,
+                    alignment_bitcount,
+                    alignment_bitcount.get_type().const_int(1, false),
+                    "",
+                )
+                .unwrap(),
+            "0:AssertionError",
+            "Expected power-of-two alignment for aligned_alloca, got {0}",
+            [Some(alignment), None, None],
+            ctx.current_loc,
+        );
+    }
+
+    let buffer_size = round_up(ctx, size, alignment);
+    let aligned_slices = ctx.builder.build_int_unsigned_div(buffer_size, alignment, "").unwrap();
+
+    // Just to be absolutely sure, alloca in [i8 x alignment] slices
+    let buffer = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(align_ty, aligned_slices, "").unwrap();
+
+    ctx.builder
+        .build_bit_cast(buffer, llvm_pi8, name.unwrap_or_default())
+        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
+        .unwrap()
 }

nac3core/src/codegen/test.rs

@@ -1,29 +1,37 @@
-use crate::{
+use std::{
-    codegen::{
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-        concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore, CodeGenContext, CodeGenLLVMOptions,
+    sync::Arc,
-        CodeGenTargetMachineOptions, CodeGenTask, DefaultCodeGenerator, WithCall, WorkerRegistry,
-    },
-    symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, ValueEnum},
-    toplevel::{
-        composer::TopLevelComposer, DefinitionId, FunInstance, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef,
-    },
-    typecheck::{
-        type_inferencer::{FunctionData, Inferencer, PrimitiveStore},
-        typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier},
-    },
 };
+
+use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use indoc::indoc;
 use inkwell::{
     targets::{InitializationConfig, Target},
-    OptimizationLevel
+    OptimizationLevel,
 };
 use nac3parser::{
-    ast::{fold::Fold, StrRef},
+    ast::{fold::Fold, FileName, StrRef},
     parser::parse_program,
 };
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use super::{
+    concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore,
+    types::{ndarray::NDArrayType, ListType, ProxyType, RangeType},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenLLVMOptions, CodeGenTargetMachineOptions, CodeGenTask, CodeGenerator,
+    DefaultCodeGenerator, WithCall, WorkerRegistry,
+};
+use crate::{
+    symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, ValueEnum},
+    toplevel::{
+        composer::{ComposerConfig, TopLevelComposer},
+        DefinitionId, FunInstance, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef,
+    },
+    typecheck::{
+        type_inferencer::{FunctionData, IdentifierInfo, Inferencer, PrimitiveStore},
+        typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
+    },
+};
 
 struct Resolver {
     id_to_type: HashMap<StrRef, Type>,
@@ -52,13 +60,14 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
         _: &PrimitiveStore,
         str: StrRef,
     ) -> Result<Type, String> {
-        self.id_to_type.get(&str).cloned().ok_or_else(|| format!("cannot find symbol `{}`", str))
+        self.id_to_type.get(&str).copied().ok_or_else(|| format!("cannot find symbol `{str}`"))
     }
 
-    fn get_symbol_value<'ctx, 'a>(
+    fn get_symbol_value<'ctx>(
         &self,
         _: StrRef,
-        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
+        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
     ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>> {
         unimplemented!()
     }
@@ -67,10 +76,8 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
         self.id_to_def
             .read()
             .get(&id)
-            .cloned()
+            .copied()
-            .ok_or_else(|| HashSet::from([
+            .ok_or_else(|| HashSet::from([format!("cannot find symbol `{id}`")]))
-                format!("cannot find symbol `{}`", id),
-            ]))
     }
 
     fn get_string_id(&self, _: &str) -> i32 {
@@ -89,9 +96,9 @@ fn test_primitives() {
         d = a if c == 1 else 0
         return d
         "};
-    let statements = parse_program(source, Default::default()).unwrap();
+    let statements = parse_program(source, FileName::default()).unwrap();
 
-    let composer: TopLevelComposer = Default::default();
+    let composer = TopLevelComposer::new(Vec::new(), Vec::new(), ComposerConfig::default(), 32).0;
     let mut unifier = composer.unifier.clone();
     let primitives = composer.primitives_ty;
     let top_level = Arc::new(composer.make_top_level_context());
@@ -100,17 +107,27 @@ fn test_primitives() {
     let resolver = Arc::new(Resolver {
         id_to_type: HashMap::new(),
         id_to_def: RwLock::new(HashMap::new()),
-        class_names: Default::default(),
+        class_names: HashMap::default(),
     }) as Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>;
 
     let threads = vec![DefaultCodeGenerator::new("test".into(), 32).into()];
     let signature = FunSignature {
         args: vec![
-            FuncArg { name: "a".into(), ty: primitives.int32, default_value: None },
+            FuncArg {
-            FuncArg { name: "b".into(), ty: primitives.int32, default_value: None },
+                name: "a".into(),
+                ty: primitives.int32,
+                default_value: None,
+                is_vararg: false,
+            },
+            FuncArg {
+                name: "b".into(),
+                ty: primitives.int32,
+                default_value: None,
+                is_vararg: false,
+            },
         ],
         ret: primitives.int32,
-        vars: HashMap::new(),
+        vars: VarMap::new(),
     };
 
     let mut store = ConcreteTypeStore::new();
@@ -125,12 +142,13 @@ fn test_primitives() {
     };
     let mut virtual_checks = Vec::new();
     let mut calls = HashMap::new();
-    let mut identifiers: HashSet<_> = ["a".into(), "b".into()].iter().cloned().collect();
+    let mut identifiers: HashMap<_, _> =
+        ["a".into(), "b".into()].map(|id| (id, IdentifierInfo::default())).into();
     let mut inferencer = Inferencer {
         top_level: &top_level,
         function_data: &mut function_data,
         unifier: &mut unifier,
-        variable_mapping: Default::default(),
+        variable_mapping: HashMap::default(),
         primitives: &primitives,
         virtual_checks: &mut virtual_checks,
         calls: &mut calls,
@@ -154,7 +172,7 @@ fn test_primitives() {
     });
 
     let task = CodeGenTask {
-        subst: Default::default(),
+        subst: Vec::default(),
         symbol_name: "testing".into(),
         body: Arc::new(statements),
         unifier_index: 0,
@@ -186,6 +204,8 @@ fn test_primitives() {
         let expected = indoc! {"
             ; ModuleID = 'test'
             source_filename = \"test\"
+            target datalayout = \"e-m:e-p270:32:32-p271:32:32-p272:64:64-i64:64-f80:128-n8:16:32:64-S128\"
+            target triple = \"x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu\"
 
             ; Function Attrs: mustprogress nofree norecurse nosync nounwind readnone willreturn
             define i32 @testing(i32 %0, i32 %1) local_unnamed_addr #0 !dbg !4 {
@@ -225,12 +245,7 @@ fn test_primitives() {
         opt_level: OptimizationLevel::Default,
         target: CodeGenTargetMachineOptions::from_host_triple(),
     };
-    let (registry, handles) = WorkerRegistry::create_workers(
+    let (registry, handles) = WorkerRegistry::create_workers(threads, top_level, &llvm_options, &f);
-        threads,
-        top_level,
-        &llvm_options,
-        &f
-    );
     registry.add_task(task);
     registry.wait_tasks_complete(handles);
 }
@@ -241,23 +256,28 @@ fn test_simple_call() {
         a = foo(a)
         return a * 2
         "};
-    let statements_1 = parse_program(source_1, Default::default()).unwrap();
+    let statements_1 = parse_program(source_1, FileName::default()).unwrap();
 
     let source_2 = indoc! { "
         return a + 1
         "};
-    let statements_2 = parse_program(source_2, Default::default()).unwrap();
+    let statements_2 = parse_program(source_2, FileName::default()).unwrap();
 
-    let composer: TopLevelComposer = Default::default();
+    let composer = TopLevelComposer::new(Vec::new(), Vec::new(), ComposerConfig::default(), 32).0;
     let mut unifier = composer.unifier.clone();
     let primitives = composer.primitives_ty;
     let top_level = Arc::new(composer.make_top_level_context());
     unifier.top_level = Some(top_level.clone());
 
     let signature = FunSignature {
-        args: vec![FuncArg { name: "a".into(), ty: primitives.int32, default_value: None }],
+        args: vec![FuncArg {
+            name: "a".into(),
+            ty: primitives.int32,
+            default_value: None,
+            is_vararg: false,
+        }],
         ret: primitives.int32,
-        vars: HashMap::new(),
+        vars: VarMap::new(),
     };
     let fun_ty = unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TFunc(signature.clone()));
     let mut store = ConcreteTypeStore::new();
@@ -281,7 +301,7 @@ fn test_simple_call() {
     let resolver = Resolver {
         id_to_type: HashMap::new(),
         id_to_def: RwLock::new(HashMap::new()),
-        class_names: Default::default(),
+        class_names: HashMap::default(),
     };
     resolver.add_id_def("foo".into(), DefinitionId(foo_id));
     let resolver = Arc::new(resolver) as Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>;
@@ -302,12 +322,13 @@ fn test_simple_call() {
     };
     let mut virtual_checks = Vec::new();
     let mut calls = HashMap::new();
-    let mut identifiers: HashSet<_> = ["a".into(), "foo".into()].iter().cloned().collect();
+    let mut identifiers: HashMap<_, _> =
+        ["a".into(), "foo".into()].map(|id| (id, IdentifierInfo::default())).into();
     let mut inferencer = Inferencer {
         top_level: &top_level,
         function_data: &mut function_data,
         unifier: &mut unifier,
-        variable_mapping: Default::default(),
+        variable_mapping: HashMap::default(),
         primitives: &primitives,
         virtual_checks: &mut virtual_checks,
         calls: &mut calls,
@@ -336,11 +357,11 @@ fn test_simple_call() {
         &mut *top_level.definitions.read()[foo_id].write()
     {
         instance_to_stmt.insert(
-            "".to_string(),
+            String::new(),
             FunInstance {
                 body: Arc::new(statements_2),
                 calls: Arc::new(inferencer.calls.clone()),
-                subst: Default::default(),
+                subst: IndexMap::default(),
                 unifier_id: 0,
             },
         );
@@ -356,7 +377,7 @@ fn test_simple_call() {
     });
 
     let task = CodeGenTask {
-        subst: Default::default(),
+        subst: Vec::default(),
         symbol_name: "testing".to_string(),
         body: Arc::new(statements_1),
         calls: Arc::new(calls1),
@@ -370,6 +391,8 @@ fn test_simple_call() {
         let expected = indoc! {"
             ; ModuleID = 'test'
             source_filename = \"test\"
+            target datalayout = \"e-m:e-p270:32:32-p271:32:32-p272:64:64-i64:64-f80:128-n8:16:32:64-S128\"
+            target triple = \"x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu\"
 
             ; Function Attrs: mustprogress nofree norecurse nosync nounwind readnone willreturn
             define i32 @testing(i32 %0) local_unnamed_addr #0 !dbg !5 {
@@ -415,12 +438,39 @@ fn test_simple_call() {
         opt_level: OptimizationLevel::Default,
         target: CodeGenTargetMachineOptions::from_host_triple(),
     };
-    let (registry, handles) = WorkerRegistry::create_workers(
+    let (registry, handles) = WorkerRegistry::create_workers(threads, top_level, &llvm_options, &f);
-        threads,
-        top_level,
-        &llvm_options,
-        &f
-    );
     registry.add_task(task);
     registry.wait_tasks_complete(handles);
 }
+
+#[test]
+fn test_classes_list_type_new() {
+    let ctx = inkwell::context::Context::create();
+    let generator = DefaultCodeGenerator::new(String::new(), 64);
+
+    let llvm_i32 = ctx.i32_type();
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(&ctx);
+
+    let llvm_list = ListType::new(&generator, &ctx, llvm_i32.into());
+    assert!(ListType::is_representable(llvm_list.as_base_type(), llvm_usize).is_ok());
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_classes_range_type_new() {
+    let ctx = inkwell::context::Context::create();
+
+    let llvm_range = RangeType::new(&ctx);
+    assert!(RangeType::is_representable(llvm_range.as_base_type()).is_ok());
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_classes_ndarray_type_new() {
+    let ctx = inkwell::context::Context::create();
+    let generator = DefaultCodeGenerator::new(String::new(), 64);
+
+    let llvm_i32 = ctx.i32_type();
+    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(&ctx);
+
+    let llvm_ndarray = NDArrayType::new(&generator, &ctx, llvm_i32.into(), None);
+    assert!(NDArrayType::is_representable(llvm_ndarray.as_base_type(), llvm_usize).is_ok());
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/types/list.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,206 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
+    values::IntValue,
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+
+use super::ProxyType;
+use crate::codegen::{
+    values::{ArraySliceValue, ListValue, ProxyValue},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+/// Proxy type for a `list` type in LLVM.
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct ListType<'ctx> {
+    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ListType<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `list` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        let llvm_list_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
+        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_list_ty) = llvm_list_ty else {
+            return Err(format!("Expected struct type for `list` type, got {llvm_list_ty}"));
+        };
+        if llvm_list_ty.count_fields() != 2 {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "Expected 2 fields in `list`, got {}",
+                llvm_list_ty.count_fields()
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let list_size_ty = llvm_list_ty.get_field_type_at_index(0).unwrap();
+        let Ok(_) = PointerType::try_from(list_size_ty) else {
+            return Err(format!("Expected pointer type for `list.0`, got {list_size_ty}"));
+        };
+
+        let list_data_ty = llvm_list_ty.get_field_type_at_index(1).unwrap();
+        let Ok(list_data_ty) = IntType::try_from(list_data_ty) else {
+            return Err(format!("Expected int type for `list.1`, got {list_data_ty}"));
+        };
+        if list_data_ty.get_bit_width() != llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "Expected {}-bit int type for `list.1`, got {}-bit int",
+                llvm_usize.get_bit_width(),
+                list_data_ty.get_bit_width()
+            ));
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of a `List`.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn llvm_type(
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        element_type: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
+        // struct List { data: T*, size: size_t }
+        let field_tys = [element_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(), llvm_usize.into()];
+
+        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an instance of [`ListType`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        element_type: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
+        let llvm_list = Self::llvm_type(ctx, element_type, llvm_usize);
+
+        ListType::from_type(llvm_list, llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`ListType`] from a [`PointerType`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_type(ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        ListType { ty: ptr_ty, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the type of the `size` field of this `list` type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn size_type(&self) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        self.as_base_type()
+            .get_element_type()
+            .into_struct_type()
+            .get_field_type_at_index(1)
+            .map(BasicTypeEnum::into_int_type)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the element type of this `list` type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn element_type(&self) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
+        self.as_base_type()
+            .get_element_type()
+            .into_struct_type()
+            .get_field_type_at_index(0)
+            .map(BasicTypeEnum::into_pointer_type)
+            .map(PointerType::get_element_type)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Allocates an instance of [`ListValue`] as if by calling `alloca` on the base type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Converts an existing value into a [`ListValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn map_value(
+        &self,
+        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(value, self.llvm_usize, name)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for ListType<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
+    type Value = ListValue<'ctx>;
+
+    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
+            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
+        } else {
+            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
+    }
+
+    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
+        generator
+            .gen_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+        generator
+            .gen_array_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                size,
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.ty
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<ListType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: ListType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_type()
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/types/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+//! This module contains abstraction over all intrinsic composite types of NAC3.
+//!
+//! # `raw_alloca` vs `alloca` vs `construct`
+//!
+//! There are three ways of creating a new object instance using the abstractions provided by this
+//! module.
+//!
+//! - `raw_alloca`: Allocates the object on the stack, returning an instance of
+//!   [`impl BasicValue`][inkwell::values::BasicValue]. This is similar to a `malloc` expression in
+//!   C++ but the object is allocated on the stack.
+//! - `alloca`: Similar to `raw_alloca`, but also wraps the allocated object with
+//!   [`<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value`][ProxyValue], and returns the wrapped object. The returned
+//!   object will not initialize any value or fields. This is similar to a type-safe `malloc`
+//!   expression in C++ but the object is allocated on the stack.
+//! - `construct`: Similar to `alloca`, but performs some initialization on the value or fields of
+//!   the returned object. This is similar to a `new` expression in C++ but the object is allocated
+//!   on the stack.
+
+use inkwell::{context::Context, types::BasicType, values::IntValue};
+
+use super::{
+    values::{ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue},
+    {CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+};
+pub use list::*;
+pub use range::*;
+
+mod list;
+pub mod ndarray;
+mod range;
+pub mod structure;
+pub mod utils;
+
+/// A LLVM type that is used to represent a corresponding type in NAC3.
+pub trait ProxyType<'ctx>: Into<Self::Base> {
+    /// The LLVM type of which values of this type possess. This is usually a
+    /// [LLVM pointer type][PointerType] for any non-primitive types.
+    type Base: BasicType<'ctx>;
+
+    /// The type of values represented by this type.
+    type Value: ProxyValue<'ctx, Type = Self>;
+
+    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String>;
+
+    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` can be represented by this [`ProxyType`].
+    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
+    ) -> Result<(), String>;
+
+    /// Creates a new value of this type, returning the LLVM instance of this value.
+    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base;
+
+    /// Creates a new array value of this type, returning an [`ArraySliceValue`] encapsulating the
+    /// resulting array.
+    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx>;
+
+    /// Returns the [base type][Self::Base] of this proxy.
+    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base;
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/contiguous.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,257 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
+    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{
+        types::{
+            structure::{
+                check_struct_type_matches_fields, FieldIndexCounter, StructField, StructFields,
+            },
+            ProxyType,
+        },
+        values::{ndarray::ContiguousNDArrayValue, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue},
+        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+    },
+    toplevel::numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys,
+    typecheck::typedef::Type,
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx> {
+    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+    item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+}
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct ContiguousNDArrayFields<'ctx> {
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    pub ndims: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    pub shape: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    pub data: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ContiguousNDArrayFields<'ctx> {
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new_typed(item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        let mut counter = FieldIndexCounter::default();
+
+        ContiguousNDArrayFields {
+            ndims: StructField::create(&mut counter, "ndims", llvm_usize),
+            shape: StructField::create(
+                &mut counter,
+                "shape",
+                llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
+            ),
+            data: StructField::create(&mut counter, "data", item.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `ndarray` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        let ctx = llvm_ty.get_context();
+
+        let llvm_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
+        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_ty) = llvm_ty else {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "Expected struct type for `ContiguousNDArray` type, got {llvm_ty}"
+            ));
+        };
+
+        let fields = ContiguousNDArrayFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize);
+
+        check_struct_type_matches_fields(
+            fields,
+            llvm_ty,
+            "ContiguousNDArray",
+            &[(fields.data.name(), &|ty| {
+                if ty.is_pointer_type() {
+                    Ok(())
+                } else {
+                    Err(format!("Expected T* for `ContiguousNDArray.data`, got {ty}"))
+                }
+            })],
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Returns an instance of [`StructFields`] containing all field accessors for this type.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn fields(
+        item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> ContiguousNDArrayFields<'ctx> {
+        ContiguousNDArrayFields::new_typed(item, llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// See [`NDArrayType::fields`].
+    // TODO: Move this into e.g. StructProxyType
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_fields(&self) -> ContiguousNDArrayFields<'ctx> {
+        Self::fields(self.item, self.llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of an `NDArray`.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn llvm_type(
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
+        let field_tys =
+            Self::fields(item, llvm_usize).into_iter().map(|field| field.1).collect_vec();
+
+        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an instance of [`ContiguousNDArrayType`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
+        let llvm_cndarray = Self::llvm_type(ctx, item, llvm_usize);
+
+        Self { ty: llvm_cndarray, item, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`ContiguousNDArrayType`] from a [unifier type][Type].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_unifier_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ty: Type,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let (dtype, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ty);
+
+        let llvm_dtype = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, dtype);
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+
+        Self { ty: Self::llvm_type(ctx.ctx, llvm_dtype, llvm_usize), item: llvm_dtype, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`ContiguousNDArrayType`] from a [`PointerType`] representing an `NDArray`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_type(
+        ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+        item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        Self { ty: ptr_ty, item, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    /// Allocates an instance of [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] as if by calling `alloca` on the base type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
+            self.item,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Converts an existing value into a [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn map_value(
+        &self,
+        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            value,
+            self.item,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
+    type Value = ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx>;
+
+    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
+            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
+        } else {
+            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
+    }
+
+    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
+        generator
+            .gen_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+        generator
+            .gen_array_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                size,
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.ty
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_type()
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/indexing.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,215 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::{AsContextRef, Context},
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
+    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+
+use crate::codegen::{
+    types::{
+        structure::{check_struct_type_matches_fields, StructField, StructFields},
+        ProxyType,
+    },
+    values::{
+        ndarray::{NDIndexValue, RustNDIndex},
+        ArrayLikeIndexer, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue,
+    },
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct NDIndexType<'ctx> {
+    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+}
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct NDIndexStructFields<'ctx> {
+    #[value_type(i8_type())]
+    pub type_: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    pub data: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDIndexType<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `ndindex` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        let ctx = llvm_ty.get_context();
+
+        let llvm_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
+        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_ty) = llvm_ty else {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "Expected struct type for `ContiguousNDArray` type, got {llvm_ty}"
+            ));
+        };
+
+        let fields = NDIndexStructFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize);
+
+        check_struct_type_matches_fields(fields, llvm_ty, "NDIndex", &[])
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    fn fields(
+        ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> NDIndexStructFields<'ctx> {
+        NDIndexStructFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_fields(&self) -> NDIndexStructFields<'ctx> {
+        Self::fields(self.ty.get_context(), self.llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    fn llvm_type(ctx: &'ctx Context, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
+        let field_tys =
+            Self::fields(ctx, llvm_usize).into_iter().map(|field| field.1).collect_vec();
+
+        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(generator: &G, ctx: &'ctx Context) -> Self {
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
+        let llvm_ndindex = Self::llvm_type(ctx, llvm_usize);
+
+        Self { ty: llvm_ndindex, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_type(ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        Self { ty: ptr_ty, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize a list of [`RustNDIndex`] as a newly allocated LLVM array of [`NDIndexValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn construct_ndindices<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        in_ndindices: &[RustNDIndex<'ctx>],
+    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+        // Allocate the LLVM ndindices.
+        let num_ndindices = self.llvm_usize.const_int(in_ndindices.len() as u64, false);
+        let ndindices = self.array_alloca(generator, ctx, num_ndindices, None);
+
+        // Initialize all of them.
+        for (i, in_ndindex) in in_ndindices.iter().enumerate() {
+            let pndindex = unsafe {
+                ndindices.ptr_offset_unchecked(
+                    ctx,
+                    generator,
+                    &ctx.ctx.i64_type().const_int(u64::try_from(i).unwrap(), false),
+                    None,
+                )
+            };
+
+            in_ndindex.write_to_ndindex(
+                generator,
+                ctx,
+                NDIndexValue::from_pointer_value(pndindex, self.llvm_usize, None),
+            );
+        }
+
+        ndindices
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn map_value(
+        &self,
+        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(value, self.llvm_usize, name)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for NDIndexType<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
+    type Value = NDIndexValue<'ctx>;
+
+    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
+            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
+        } else {
+            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
+    }
+
+    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
+        generator
+            .gen_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+        generator
+            .gen_array_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                size,
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.ty
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<NDIndexType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: NDIndexType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_type()
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,469 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::{AsContextRef, Context},
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
+    values::{BasicValue, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+
+use super::{
+    structure::{check_struct_type_matches_fields, StructField, StructFields},
+    ProxyType,
+};
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{
+        values::{ndarray::NDArrayValue, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue, TypedArrayLikeMutator},
+        {CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    },
+    toplevel::{helper::extract_ndims, numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys},
+    typecheck::typedef::Type,
+};
+pub use contiguous::*;
+pub use indexing::*;
+pub use nditer::*;
+
+mod contiguous;
+mod indexing;
+mod nditer;
+
+/// Proxy type for a `ndarray` type in LLVM.
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct NDArrayType<'ctx> {
+    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+    dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+    ndims: Option<u64>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+}
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct NDArrayStructFields<'ctx> {
+    /// The size of each `NDArray` element in bytes.
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    pub itemsize: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    /// Number of dimensions in the array.
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    pub ndims: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    /// Pointer to an array containing the shape of the `NDArray`.
+    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    pub shape: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    /// Pointer to an array indicating the number of bytes between each element at a dimension
+    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    pub strides: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    /// Pointer to an array containing the array data
+    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    pub data: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayType<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `ndarray` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        let ctx = llvm_ty.get_context();
+
+        let llvm_ndarray_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
+        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_ndarray_ty) = llvm_ndarray_ty else {
+            return Err(format!("Expected struct type for `NDArray` type, got {llvm_ndarray_ty}"));
+        };
+
+        check_struct_type_matches_fields(
+            Self::fields(ctx, llvm_usize),
+            llvm_ndarray_ty,
+            "NDArray",
+            &[],
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Returns an instance of [`StructFields`] containing all field accessors for this type.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn fields(
+        ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> NDArrayStructFields<'ctx> {
+        NDArrayStructFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// See [`NDArrayType::fields`].
+    // TODO: Move this into e.g. StructProxyType
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_fields(&self, ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>) -> NDArrayStructFields<'ctx> {
+        Self::fields(ctx, self.llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of an `NDArray`.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn llvm_type(ctx: &'ctx Context, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
+        let field_tys =
+            Self::fields(ctx, llvm_usize).into_iter().map(|field| field.1).collect_vec();
+
+        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an instance of [`NDArrayType`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+        ndims: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
+        let llvm_ndarray = Self::llvm_type(ctx, llvm_usize);
+
+        NDArrayType { ty: llvm_ndarray, dtype, ndims, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an instance of [`NDArrayType`] with `ndims` of 0.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new_unsized<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
+        let llvm_ndarray = Self::llvm_type(ctx, llvm_usize);
+
+        NDArrayType { ty: llvm_ndarray, dtype, ndims: Some(0), llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`NDArrayType`] from a [unifier type][Type].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_unifier_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ty: Type,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let (dtype, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ty);
+
+        let llvm_dtype = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, dtype);
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+        let ndims = extract_ndims(&ctx.unifier, ndims);
+
+        NDArrayType {
+            ty: Self::llvm_type(ctx.ctx, llvm_usize),
+            dtype: llvm_dtype,
+            ndims: Some(ndims),
+            llvm_usize,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`NDArrayType`] from a [`PointerType`] representing an `NDArray`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_type(
+        ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+        dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+        ndims: Option<u64>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        NDArrayType { ty: ptr_ty, dtype, ndims, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the type of the `size` field of this `ndarray` type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn size_type(&self) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        self.llvm_usize
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the element type of this `ndarray` type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn element_type(&self) -> BasicTypeEnum<'ctx> {
+        self.dtype
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the number of dimensions of this `ndarray` type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn ndims(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.ndims
+    }
+
+    /// Allocates an instance of [`NDArrayValue`] as if by calling `alloca` on the base type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
+            self.dtype,
+            self.ndims,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Allocates an [`NDArrayValue`] on the stack and initializes all fields as follows:
+    ///
+    /// - `data`: uninitialized.
+    /// - `itemsize`: set to the size of `self.dtype`.
+    /// - `ndims`: set to the value of  `ndims`.
+    /// - `shape`: allocated on the stack with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized values.
+    /// - `strides`: allocated on the stack with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized
+    ///   values.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn construct_impl<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        let ndarray = self.alloca(generator, ctx, name);
+
+        let itemsize = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(self.dtype.size_of().unwrap(), self.llvm_usize, "")
+            .unwrap();
+        ndarray.store_itemsize(ctx, generator, itemsize);
+
+        ndarray.store_ndims(ctx, generator, ndims);
+
+        ndarray.create_shape(ctx, self.llvm_usize, ndims);
+        ndarray.create_strides(ctx, self.llvm_usize, ndims);
+
+        ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Allocate an [`NDArrayValue`] on the stack using `dtype` and `ndims` of this [`NDArrayType`]
+    /// instance.
+    ///
+    /// The returned ndarray's content will be:
+    /// - `data`: uninitialized.
+    /// - `itemsize`: set to the size of `dtype`.
+    /// - `ndims`: set to the value of `self.ndims`.
+    /// - `shape`: allocated on the stack with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized values.
+    /// - `strides`: allocated on the stack with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized
+    ///   values.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn construct_uninitialized<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        assert!(self.ndims.is_some(), "NDArrayType::construct can only be called on an instance with compile-time known ndims (self.ndims = Some(ndims))");
+
+        let Some(ndims) = self.ndims.map(|ndims| self.llvm_usize.const_int(ndims, false)) else {
+            unreachable!()
+        };
+
+        self.construct_impl(generator, ctx, ndims, name)
+    }
+
+    /// Allocate an [`NDArrayValue`] on the stack given its `ndims` and `dtype`.
+    ///
+    /// `shape` and `strides` will be automatically allocated onto the stack.
+    ///
+    /// The returned ndarray's content will be:
+    /// - `data`: uninitialized.
+    /// - `itemsize`: set to the size of `dtype`.
+    /// - `ndims`: set to the value of `ndims`.
+    /// - `shape`: allocated with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized values.
+    /// - `strides`: allocated with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized values.
+    #[deprecated = "Prefer construct_uninitialized or construct_*_shape."]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn construct_dyn_ndims<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        assert!(self.ndims.is_none(), "NDArrayType::construct_dyn_ndims can only be called on an instance with compile-time unknown ndims (self.ndims = None)");
+
+        self.construct_impl(generator, ctx, ndims, name)
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience function. Allocate an [`NDArrayValue`] with a statically known shape.
+    ///
+    /// The returned [`NDArrayValue`]'s `data` and `strides` are uninitialized.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn construct_const_shape<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        shape: &[u64],
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        assert!(self.ndims.is_none_or(|ndims| shape.len() as u64 == ndims));
+
+        let ndarray = Self::new(generator, ctx.ctx, self.dtype, Some(shape.len() as u64))
+            .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, name);
+
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+
+        // Write shape
+        let ndarray_shape = ndarray.shape();
+        for (i, dim) in shape.iter().enumerate() {
+            let dim = llvm_usize.const_int(*dim, false);
+            unsafe {
+                ndarray_shape.set_typed_unchecked(
+                    ctx,
+                    generator,
+                    &llvm_usize.const_int(i as u64, false),
+                    dim,
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience function. Allocate an [`NDArrayValue`] with a dynamically known shape.
+    ///
+    /// The returned [`NDArrayValue`]'s `data` and `strides` are uninitialized.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn construct_dyn_shape<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        shape: &[IntValue<'ctx>],
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        assert!(self.ndims.is_none_or(|ndims| shape.len() as u64 == ndims));
+
+        let ndarray = Self::new(generator, ctx.ctx, self.dtype, Some(shape.len() as u64))
+            .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, name);
+
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+
+        // Write shape
+        let ndarray_shape = ndarray.shape();
+        for (i, dim) in shape.iter().enumerate() {
+            assert_eq!(
+                dim.get_type(),
+                llvm_usize,
+                "Expected {} but got {}",
+                llvm_usize.print_to_string(),
+                dim.get_type().print_to_string()
+            );
+            unsafe {
+                ndarray_shape.set_typed_unchecked(
+                    ctx,
+                    generator,
+                    &llvm_usize.const_int(i as u64, false),
+                    *dim,
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Create an unsized ndarray to contain `value`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn construct_unsized<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: &impl BasicValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+        let value = value.as_basic_value_enum();
+
+        assert_eq!(value.get_type(), self.dtype);
+        assert!(self.ndims.is_none_or(|ndims| ndims == 0));
+
+        // We have to put the value on the stack to get a data pointer.
+        let data = ctx.builder.build_alloca(value.get_type(), "construct_unsized").unwrap();
+        ctx.builder.build_store(data, value).unwrap();
+        let data = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_pointer_cast(data, ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let ndarray = Self::new_unsized(generator, ctx.ctx, value.get_type())
+            .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, name);
+        ctx.builder.build_store(ndarray.ptr_to_data(ctx), data).unwrap();
+        ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Converts an existing value into a [`NDArrayValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn map_value(
+        &self,
+        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            value,
+            self.dtype,
+            self.ndims,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for NDArrayType<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
+    type Value = NDArrayValue<'ctx>;
+
+    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
+            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
+        } else {
+            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
+    }
+
+    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
+        generator
+            .gen_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+        generator
+            .gen_array_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                size,
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.ty
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<NDArrayType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: NDArrayType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_type()
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/nditer.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,241 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::{AsContextRef, Context},
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
+    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+
+use super::ProxyType;
+use crate::codegen::{
+    irrt,
+    types::structure::{check_struct_type_matches_fields, StructField, StructFields},
+    values::{
+        ndarray::{NDArrayValue, NDIterValue},
+        ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue,
+    },
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct NDIterType<'ctx> {
+    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+}
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct NDIterStructFields<'ctx> {
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    pub ndims: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    pub shape: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    pub strides: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    pub indices: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    pub nth: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
+    pub element: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    pub size: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDIterType<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `nditer` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        let ctx = llvm_ty.get_context();
+
+        let llvm_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
+        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_ndarray_ty) = llvm_ty else {
+            return Err(format!("Expected struct type for `NDIter` type, got {llvm_ty}"));
+        };
+
+        check_struct_type_matches_fields(
+            Self::fields(ctx, llvm_usize),
+            llvm_ndarray_ty,
+            "NDIter",
+            &[],
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Returns an instance of [`StructFields`] containing all field accessors for this type.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn fields(ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> NDIterStructFields<'ctx> {
+        NDIterStructFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// See [`NDIterType::fields`].
+    // TODO: Move this into e.g. StructProxyType
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_fields(&self, ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>) -> NDIterStructFields<'ctx> {
+        Self::fields(ctx, self.llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of an `NDIter`.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn llvm_type(ctx: &'ctx Context, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
+        let field_tys =
+            Self::fields(ctx, llvm_usize).into_iter().map(|field| field.1).collect_vec();
+
+        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an instance of [`NDIter`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(generator: &G, ctx: &'ctx Context) -> Self {
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
+        let llvm_nditer = Self::llvm_type(ctx, llvm_usize);
+
+        Self { ty: llvm_nditer, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`NDIterType`] from a [`PointerType`] representing an `NDIter`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_type(ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        Self { ty: ptr_ty, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the type of the `size` field of this `nditer` type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn size_type(&self) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        self.llvm_usize
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        parent: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+        indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
+            parent,
+            indices,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Allocate an [`NDIter`] that iterates through the given `ndarray`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn construct<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        let nditer = self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, None);
+        let ndims = ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
+
+        // The caller has the responsibility to allocate 'indices' for `NDIter`.
+        let indices =
+            generator.gen_array_var_alloc(ctx, self.llvm_usize.into(), ndims, None).unwrap();
+
+        let nditer = <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            nditer,
+            ndarray,
+            indices,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            None,
+        );
+
+        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_nditer_initialize(generator, ctx, nditer, ndarray, indices);
+
+        nditer
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn map_value(
+        &self,
+        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
+        parent: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+        indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            value,
+            parent,
+            indices,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for NDIterType<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
+    type Value = NDIterValue<'ctx>;
+
+    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
+            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
+        } else {
+            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
+    }
+
+    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
+        generator
+            .gen_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+        generator
+            .gen_array_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                size,
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.ty
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<NDIterType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: NDIterType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_type()
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/types/range.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,170 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
+    values::IntValue,
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+
+use super::ProxyType;
+use crate::codegen::{
+    values::{ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue, RangeValue},
+    {CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+};
+
+/// Proxy type for a `range` type in LLVM.
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct RangeType<'ctx> {
+    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> RangeType<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `range` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
+    pub fn is_representable(llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>) -> Result<(), String> {
+        let llvm_range_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
+        let AnyTypeEnum::ArrayType(llvm_range_ty) = llvm_range_ty else {
+            return Err(format!("Expected array type for `range` type, got {llvm_range_ty}"));
+        };
+        if llvm_range_ty.len() != 3 {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "Expected 3 elements for `range` type, got {}",
+                llvm_range_ty.len()
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let llvm_range_elem_ty = llvm_range_ty.get_element_type();
+        let Ok(llvm_range_elem_ty) = IntType::try_from(llvm_range_elem_ty) else {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "Expected int type for `range` element type, got {llvm_range_elem_ty}"
+            ));
+        };
+        if llvm_range_elem_ty.get_bit_width() != 32 {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "Expected 32-bit int type for `range` element type, got {}",
+                llvm_range_elem_ty.get_bit_width()
+            ));
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of a `Range`.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn llvm_type(ctx: &'ctx Context) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
+        // typedef int32_t Range[3];
+        let llvm_i32 = ctx.i32_type();
+        llvm_i32.array_type(3).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an instance of [`RangeType`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new(ctx: &'ctx Context) -> Self {
+        let llvm_range = Self::llvm_type(ctx);
+
+        RangeType::from_type(llvm_range)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`RangeType`] from a [`PointerType`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_type(ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty).is_ok());
+
+        RangeType { ty: ptr_ty }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the type of all fields of this `range` type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn value_type(&self) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_array_type().get_element_type().into_int_type()
+    }
+
+    /// Allocates an instance of [`RangeValue`] as if by calling `alloca` on the base type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Converts an existing value into a [`RangeValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn map_value(
+        &self,
+        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(value, name)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for RangeType<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
+    type Value = RangeValue<'ctx>;
+
+    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
+            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
+        } else {
+            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        _: &G,
+        _: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty)
+    }
+
+    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
+        generator
+            .gen_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+        generator
+            .gen_array_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                size,
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.ty
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<RangeType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: RangeType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_type()
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/types/structure.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,255 @@
+use std::marker::PhantomData;
+
+use inkwell::{
+    context::AsContextRef,
+    types::{BasicTypeEnum, IntType, StructType},
+    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue},
+};
+
+use crate::codegen::CodeGenContext;
+
+/// Trait indicating that the structure is a field-wise representation of an LLVM structure.
+///
+/// # Usage
+///
+/// For example, for a simple C-slice LLVM structure:
+///
+/// ```ignore
+/// struct CSliceFields<'ctx> {
+///     ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
+///     len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>
+/// }
+/// ```
+pub trait StructFields<'ctx>: Eq + Copy {
+    /// Creates an instance of [`StructFields`] using the given `ctx` and `size_t` types.
+    fn new(ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self;
+
+    /// Returns a [`Vec`] that contains the fields of the structure in the order as they appear in
+    /// the type definition.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn to_vec(&self) -> Vec<(&'static str, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)>;
+
+    /// Returns a [`Iterator`] that contains the fields of the structure in the order as they appear
+    /// in the type definition.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (&'static str, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)> {
+        self.to_vec().into_iter()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a [`Vec`] that contains the fields of the structure in the order as they appear in
+    /// the type definition.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn into_vec(self) -> Vec<(&'static str, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)>
+    where
+        Self: Sized,
+    {
+        self.to_vec()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a [`Iterator`] that contains the fields of the structure in the order as they appear
+    /// in the type definition.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn into_iter(self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (&'static str, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)>
+    where
+        Self: Sized,
+    {
+        self.into_vec().into_iter()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A single field of an LLVM structure.
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct StructField<'ctx, Value>
+where
+    Value: BasicValue<'ctx> + TryFrom<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>, Error = ()>,
+{
+    /// The index of this field within the structure.
+    index: u32,
+
+    /// The name of this field.
+    name: &'static str,
+
+    /// The type of this field.
+    ty: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+
+    /// Instance of [`PhantomData`] containing [`Value`], used to implement automatic downcasts.
+    _value_ty: PhantomData<Value>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, Value> StructField<'ctx, Value>
+where
+    Value: BasicValue<'ctx> + TryFrom<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>, Error = ()>,
+{
+    /// Creates an instance of [`StructField`].
+    ///
+    /// * `idx_counter` - The instance of [`FieldIndexCounter`] used to track the current field
+    ///   index.
+    /// * `name` - Name of the field.
+    /// * `ty` - The type of this field.
+    pub fn create(
+        idx_counter: &mut FieldIndexCounter,
+        name: &'static str,
+        ty: impl Into<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        StructField { index: idx_counter.increment(), name, ty: ty.into(), _value_ty: PhantomData }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an instance of [`StructField`] with a given index.
+    ///
+    /// * `index` - The index of this field within its enclosing structure.
+    /// * `name` - Name of the field.
+    /// * `ty` - The type of this field.
+    pub fn create_at(index: u32, name: &'static str, ty: impl Into<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>) -> Self {
+        StructField { index, name, ty: ty.into(), _value_ty: PhantomData }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the name of this field.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn name(&self) -> &'static str {
+        self.name
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a pointer to this field in an arbitrary structure by performing a `getelementptr i32
+    /// {idx...}, i32 {self.index}`.
+    pub fn ptr_by_array_gep(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        pobj: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        idx: &[IntValue<'ctx>],
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        unsafe {
+            ctx.builder.build_in_bounds_gep(
+                pobj,
+                &[idx, &[ctx.ctx.i32_type().const_int(u64::from(self.index), false)]].concat(),
+                "",
+            )
+        }
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a pointer to this field in an arbitrary structure by performing the equivalent of
+    /// `getelementptr i32 0, i32 {self.index}`.
+    pub fn ptr_by_gep(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        pobj: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        obj_name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_struct_gep(
+                pobj,
+                self.index,
+                &obj_name.map(|name| format!("{name}.{}.addr", self.name)).unwrap_or_default(),
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the value of this field for a given `obj`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_from_value(&self, obj: StructValue<'ctx>) -> Value {
+        obj.get_field_at_index(self.index).and_then(|value| Value::try_from(value).ok()).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the value of this field for a given `obj`.
+    pub fn set_for_value(&self, obj: StructValue<'ctx>, value: Value) {
+        obj.set_field_at_index(self.index, value);
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the value of this field for a pointer-to-structure.
+    pub fn get(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        pobj: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        obj_name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> Value {
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_load(
+                self.ptr_by_gep(ctx, pobj, obj_name),
+                &obj_name.map(|name| format!("{name}.{}", self.name)).unwrap_or_default(),
+            )
+            .map_err(|_| ())
+            .and_then(|value| Value::try_from(value))
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the value of this field for a pointer-to-structure.
+    pub fn set(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        pobj: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        value: Value,
+        obj_name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) {
+        ctx.builder.build_store(self.ptr_by_gep(ctx, pobj, obj_name), value).unwrap();
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, Value> From<StructField<'ctx, Value>> for (&'static str, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)
+where
+    Value: BasicValue<'ctx> + TryFrom<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>, Error = ()>,
+{
+    fn from(value: StructField<'ctx, Value>) -> Self {
+        (value.name, value.ty)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A counter that tracks the next index of a field using a monotonically increasing counter.
+#[derive(Default, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct FieldIndexCounter(u32);
+
+impl FieldIndexCounter {
+    /// Increments the number stored by this counter, returning the previous value.
+    ///
+    /// Functionally equivalent to `i++` in C-based languages.
+    pub fn increment(&mut self) -> u32 {
+        let v = self.0;
+        self.0 += 1;
+        v
+    }
+}
+
+type FieldTypeVerifier<'ctx> = dyn Fn(BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>) -> Result<(), String>;
+
+/// Checks whether [`llvm_ty`][StructType] contains the fields described by the given
+/// [`StructFields`] instance.
+///
+/// By default, this function will compare the type of each field in `expected_fields` against
+/// `llvm_ty`. To override this behavior for individual fields, pass in overrides to
+/// `custom_verifiers`, which will use the specified verifier when a field with the matching field
+/// name is being checked.
+pub(super) fn check_struct_type_matches_fields<'ctx>(
+    expected_fields: impl StructFields<'ctx>,
+    llvm_ty: StructType<'ctx>,
+    ty_name: &'static str,
+    custom_verifiers: &[(&str, &FieldTypeVerifier<'ctx>)],
+) -> Result<(), String> {
+    let expected_fields = expected_fields.to_vec();
+
+    if llvm_ty.count_fields() != u32::try_from(expected_fields.len()).unwrap() {
+        return Err(format!(
+            "Expected {} fields in `{ty_name}`, got {}",
+            expected_fields.len(),
+            llvm_ty.count_fields(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    expected_fields
+        .into_iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(i, (field_name, expected_ty))| {
+            (field_name, expected_ty, llvm_ty.get_field_type_at_index(i as u32).unwrap())
+        })
+        .try_for_each(|(field_name, expected_ty, actual_ty)| {
+            if let Some((_, verifier)) =
+                custom_verifiers.iter().find(|verifier| verifier.0 == field_name)
+            {
+                verifier(actual_ty)
+            } else if expected_ty == actual_ty {
+                Ok(())
+            } else {
+                Err(format!("Expected {expected_ty} for `{ty_name}.{field_name}`, got {actual_ty}"))
+            }
+        })?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/types/utils/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+pub use slice::*;
+
+mod slice;

nac3core/src/codegen/types/utils/slice.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,254 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::{AsContextRef, Context, ContextRef},
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
+    values::IntValue,
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
+
+use crate::codegen::{
+    types::{
+        structure::{
+            check_struct_type_matches_fields, FieldIndexCounter, StructField, StructFields,
+        },
+        ProxyType,
+    },
+    values::{utils::SliceValue, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct SliceType<'ctx> {
+    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+    int_ty: IntType<'ctx>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+}
+
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
+pub struct SliceFields<'ctx> {
+    #[value_type(bool_type())]
+    pub start_defined: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    pub start: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(bool_type())]
+    pub stop_defined: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    pub stop: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(bool_type())]
+    pub step_defined: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    #[value_type(usize)]
+    pub step: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> SliceFields<'ctx> {
+    /// Creates a new instance of [`SliceFields`] with a custom integer type for its range values.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new_sized(ctx: &impl AsContextRef<'ctx>, int_ty: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        let ctx = unsafe { ContextRef::new(ctx.as_ctx_ref()) };
+        let mut counter = FieldIndexCounter::default();
+
+        SliceFields {
+            start_defined: StructField::create(&mut counter, "start_defined", ctx.bool_type()),
+            start: StructField::create(&mut counter, "start", int_ty),
+            stop_defined: StructField::create(&mut counter, "stop_defined", ctx.bool_type()),
+            stop: StructField::create(&mut counter, "stop", int_ty),
+            step_defined: StructField::create(&mut counter, "step_defined", ctx.bool_type()),
+            step: StructField::create(&mut counter, "step", int_ty),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> SliceType<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `slice` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        let ctx = llvm_ty.get_context();
+
+        let fields = SliceFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize);
+
+        let llvm_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
+        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_ty) = llvm_ty else {
+            return Err(format!("Expected struct type for `Slice` type, got {llvm_ty}"));
+        };
+
+        check_struct_type_matches_fields(
+            fields,
+            llvm_ty,
+            "Slice",
+            &[
+                (fields.start.name(), &|ty| {
+                    if ty.is_int_type() {
+                        Ok(())
+                    } else {
+                        Err(format!("Expected int type for `Slice.start`, got {ty}"))
+                    }
+                }),
+                (fields.stop.name(), &|ty| {
+                    if ty.is_int_type() {
+                        Ok(())
+                    } else {
+                        Err(format!("Expected int type for `Slice.stop`, got {ty}"))
+                    }
+                }),
+                (fields.step.name(), &|ty| {
+                    if ty.is_int_type() {
+                        Ok(())
+                    } else {
+                        Err(format!("Expected int type for `Slice.step`, got {ty}"))
+                    }
+                }),
+            ],
+        )
+    }
+
+    // TODO: Move this into e.g. StructProxyType
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_fields(&self) -> SliceFields<'ctx> {
+        SliceFields::new_sized(&self.int_ty.get_context(), self.int_ty)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of a `Slice`.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn llvm_type(ctx: &'ctx Context, int_ty: IntType<'ctx>) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
+        let field_tys = SliceFields::new_sized(&int_ty.get_context(), int_ty)
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|field| field.1)
+            .collect_vec();
+
+        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an instance of [`SliceType`] with `int_ty` as its backing integer type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new(ctx: &'ctx Context, int_ty: IntType<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        let llvm_ty = Self::llvm_type(ctx, int_ty);
+
+        Self { ty: llvm_ty, int_ty, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an instance of [`SliceType`] with `usize` as its backing integer type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new_usize<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(generator: &G, ctx: &'ctx Context) -> Self {
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
+        Self::new(ctx, llvm_usize, llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`SliceType`] from a [`PointerType`] representing a `slice`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_type(
+        ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
+        int_ty: IntType<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, int_ty).is_ok());
+
+        Self { ty: ptr_ty, int_ty, llvm_usize }
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn element_type(&self) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        self.int_ty
+    }
+
+    /// Allocates an instance of [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] as if by calling `alloca` on the base type.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
+            self.int_ty,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Converts an existing value into a [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn map_value(
+        &self,
+        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
+        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
+            value,
+            self.int_ty,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+            name,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for SliceType<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
+    type Value = SliceValue<'ctx>;
+
+    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
+            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
+        } else {
+            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
+    }
+
+    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
+        generator
+            .gen_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+        generator
+            .gen_array_var_alloc(
+                ctx,
+                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
+                size,
+                name,
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.ty
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<SliceType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: SliceType<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_type()
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/values/array.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,426 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    types::AnyTypeEnum,
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    IntPredicate,
+};
+
+use crate::codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
+
+/// An LLVM value that is array-like, i.e. it contains a contiguous, sequenced collection of
+/// elements.
+pub trait ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Returns the element type of this array-like value.
+    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx>;
+
+    /// Returns the base pointer to the array.
+    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx>;
+
+    /// Returns the size of this array-like value.
+    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx>;
+
+    /// Returns a [`ArraySliceValue`] representing this value.
+    fn as_slice_value<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+        ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(
+            self.base_ptr(ctx, generator),
+            self.size(ctx, generator),
+            None,
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+/// An array-like value that can be indexed by memory offset.
+pub trait ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index = IntValue<'ctx>>: ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> {
+    /// # Safety
+    ///
+    /// This function should be called with a valid index.
+    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx>;
+
+    /// Returns the pointer to the data at the `idx`-th index.
+    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx>;
+}
+
+/// An array-like value that can have its array elements accessed as a [`BasicValueEnum`].
+pub trait UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index = IntValue<'ctx>>:
+    ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index>
+{
+    /// # Safety
+    ///
+    /// This function should be called with a valid index.
+    unsafe fn get_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
+        let ptr = unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) };
+        ctx.builder.build_load(ptr, name.unwrap_or_default()).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the data at the `idx`-th index.
+    fn get<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
+        let ptr = self.ptr_offset(ctx, generator, idx, name);
+        ctx.builder.build_load(ptr, name.unwrap_or_default()).unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+/// An array-like value that can have its array elements mutated as a [`BasicValueEnum`].
+pub trait UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index = IntValue<'ctx>>:
+    ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index>
+{
+    /// # Safety
+    ///
+    /// This function should be called with a valid index.
+    unsafe fn set_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        let ptr = unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, None) };
+        ctx.builder.build_store(ptr, value).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the data at the `idx`-th index.
+    fn set<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        let ptr = self.ptr_offset(ctx, generator, idx, None);
+        ctx.builder.build_store(ptr, value).unwrap();
+    }
+}
+
+/// An array-like value that can have its array elements accessed as an arbitrary type `T`.
+pub trait TypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, T, Index = IntValue<'ctx>>:
+    UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index>
+{
+    /// Casts an element from [`BasicValueEnum`] into `T`.
+    fn downcast_to_type(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) -> T;
+
+    /// # Safety
+    ///
+    /// This function should be called with a valid index.
+    unsafe fn get_typed_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> T {
+        let value = unsafe { self.get_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) };
+        self.downcast_to_type(ctx, value)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the data at the `idx`-th index.
+    fn get_typed<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> T {
+        let value = self.get(ctx, generator, idx, name);
+        self.downcast_to_type(ctx, value)
+    }
+}
+
+/// An array-like value that can have its array elements mutated as an arbitrary type `T`.
+pub trait TypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, T, Index = IntValue<'ctx>>:
+    UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index>
+{
+    /// Casts an element from T into [`BasicValueEnum`].
+    fn upcast_from_type(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: T,
+    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx>;
+
+    /// # Safety
+    ///
+    /// This function should be called with a valid index.
+    unsafe fn set_typed_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        value: T,
+    ) {
+        let value = self.upcast_from_type(ctx, value);
+        unsafe { self.set_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, value) }
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the data at the `idx`-th index.
+    fn set_typed<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        value: T,
+    ) {
+        let value = self.upcast_from_type(ctx, value);
+        self.set(ctx, generator, idx, value);
+    }
+}
+
+/// Type alias for a function that casts a [`BasicValueEnum`] into a `T`.
+type ValueDowncastFn<'ctx, T> =
+    Box<dyn Fn(&mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, BasicValueEnum<'ctx>) -> T + 'ctx>;
+/// Type alias for a function that casts a `T` into a [`BasicValueEnum`].
+type ValueUpcastFn<'ctx, T> = Box<dyn Fn(&mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, T) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx>>;
+
+/// An adapter for constraining untyped array values as typed values.
+pub struct TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted: ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> = ArraySliceValue<'ctx>> {
+    adapted: Adapted,
+    downcast_fn: ValueDowncastFn<'ctx, T>,
+    upcast_fn: ValueUpcastFn<'ctx, T>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, T, Adapted> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
+where
+    Adapted: ArrayLikeValue<'ctx>,
+{
+    /// Creates a [`TypedArrayLikeAdapter`].
+    ///
+    /// * `adapted` - The value to be adapted.
+    /// * `downcast_fn` - The function converting a [`BasicValueEnum`] into a `T`.
+    /// * `upcast_fn` - The function converting a T into a [`BasicValueEnum`].
+    pub fn from(
+        adapted: Adapted,
+        downcast_fn: ValueDowncastFn<'ctx, T>,
+        upcast_fn: ValueUpcastFn<'ctx, T>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        TypedArrayLikeAdapter { adapted, downcast_fn, upcast_fn }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, T, Adapted> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
+where
+    Adapted: ArrayLikeValue<'ctx>,
+{
+    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
+        self.adapted.element_type(ctx, generator)
+    }
+
+    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.adapted.base_ptr(ctx, generator)
+    }
+
+    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.adapted.size(ctx, generator)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, T, Index, Adapted> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index>
+    for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
+where
+    Adapted: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index>,
+{
+    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        unsafe { self.adapted.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) }
+    }
+
+    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &Index,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.adapted.ptr_offset(ctx, generator, idx, name)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, T, Index, Adapted> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index>
+    for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
+where
+    Adapted: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index>,
+{
+}
+impl<'ctx, T, Index, Adapted> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index>
+    for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
+where
+    Adapted: UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index>,
+{
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, T, Index, Adapted> TypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, T, Index>
+    for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
+where
+    Adapted: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index>,
+{
+    fn downcast_to_type(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) -> T {
+        (self.downcast_fn)(ctx, value)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, T, Index, Adapted> TypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, T, Index>
+    for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
+where
+    Adapted: UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index>,
+{
+    fn upcast_from_type(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: T,
+    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
+        (self.upcast_fn)(ctx, value)
+    }
+}
+
+/// An LLVM value representing an array slice, consisting of a pointer to the data and the size of
+/// the slice.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct ArraySliceValue<'ctx>(PointerValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, Option<&'ctx str>);
+
+impl<'ctx> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Creates an [`ArraySliceValue`] from a [`PointerValue`] and its size.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_ptr_val(
+        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        ArraySliceValue(ptr, size, name)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<ArraySliceValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.0
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
+        self.0.get_type().get_element_type()
+    }
+
+    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.0
+    }
+
+    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.1
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx> for ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
+    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let var_name = name.map(|v| format!("{v}.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
+
+        unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(self.base_ptr(ctx, generator), &[*idx], var_name.as_str())
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        debug_assert_eq!(idx.get_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx));
+
+        let size = self.size(ctx, generator);
+        let in_range = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, *idx, size, "").unwrap();
+        ctx.make_assert(
+            generator,
+            in_range,
+            "0:IndexError",
+            "list index out of range",
+            [None, None, None],
+            ctx.current_loc,
+        );
+
+        unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx> for ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {}
+impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx> for ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {}

nac3core/src/codegen/values/list.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,241 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
+};
+
+use super::{
+    ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ProxyValue, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor, UntypedArrayLikeMutator,
+};
+use crate::codegen::{
+    types::ListType,
+    {CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+};
+
+/// Proxy type for accessing a `list` value in LLVM.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct ListValue<'ctx> {
+    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ListValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `list`, returning [Err] if `value` is not an
+    /// instance.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        ListType::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`ListValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_pointer_value(
+        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        ListValue { value: ptr, llvm_usize, name }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the double-indirection pointer to the `data` array, as if by calling `getelementptr`
+    /// on the field.
+    fn pptr_to_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+        let var_name = self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.data.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
+
+        unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(
+                    self.as_base_value(),
+                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_zero()],
+                    var_name.as_str(),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the pointer to the field storing the size of this `list`.
+    fn ptr_to_size(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+        let var_name = self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.size.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
+
+        unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(
+                    self.as_base_value(),
+                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_int(1, true)],
+                    var_name.as_str(),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Stores the array of data elements `data` into this instance.
+    fn store_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, data: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
+        ctx.builder.build_store(self.pptr_to_data(ctx), data).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience method for creating a new array storing data elements with the given element
+    /// type `elem_ty` and `size`.
+    ///
+    /// If `size` is [None], the size stored in the field of this instance is used instead.
+    pub fn create_data(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        elem_ty: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+        size: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    ) {
+        let size = size.unwrap_or_else(|| self.load_size(ctx, None));
+
+        let data = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_select(
+                ctx.builder
+                    .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, size, self.llvm_usize.const_zero(), "")
+                    .unwrap(),
+                ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(elem_ty, size, "").unwrap(),
+                elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).const_zero(),
+                "",
+            )
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
+            .unwrap();
+        self.store_data(ctx, data);
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the double-indirection pointer to the `data` array, as if by calling `getelementptr`
+    /// on the field.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn data(&self) -> ListDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+        ListDataProxy(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Stores the `size` of this `list` into this instance.
+    pub fn store_size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(size.get_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx));
+
+        let psize = self.ptr_to_size(ctx);
+        ctx.builder.build_store(psize, size).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the size of this `list` as a value.
+    pub fn load_size(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, name: Option<&str>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        let psize = self.ptr_to_size(ctx);
+        let var_name = name
+            .map(ToString::to_string)
+            .or_else(|| self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.size")))
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_load(psize, var_name.as_str())
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for ListValue<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = ListType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
+        ListType::from_type(self.as_base_value().get_type(), self.llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.value
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<ListValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: ListValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_value()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Proxy type for accessing the `data` array of an `list` instance in LLVM.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct ListDataProxy<'ctx, 'a>(&'a ListValue<'ctx>);
+
+impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for ListDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
+        self.0.value.get_type().get_element_type()
+    }
+
+    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let var_name = self.0.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.data")).unwrap_or_default();
+
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_load(self.0.pptr_to_data(ctx), var_name.as_str())
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.0.load_size(ctx, None)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx> for ListDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let var_name = name.map(|v| format!("{v}.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
+
+        unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(self.base_ptr(ctx, generator), &[*idx], var_name.as_str())
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        debug_assert_eq!(idx.get_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx));
+
+        let size = self.size(ctx, generator);
+        let in_range = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, *idx, size, "").unwrap();
+        ctx.make_assert(
+            generator,
+            in_range,
+            "0:IndexError",
+            "list index out of range",
+            [None, None, None],
+            ctx.current_loc,
+        );
+
+        unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx> for ListDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
+impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx> for ListDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {}

nac3core/src/codegen/values/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+use inkwell::{context::Context, values::BasicValue};
+
+use super::types::ProxyType;
+use crate::codegen::CodeGenerator;
+pub use array::*;
+pub use list::*;
+pub use range::*;
+
+mod array;
+mod list;
+pub mod ndarray;
+mod range;
+pub mod utils;
+
+/// A LLVM type that is used to represent a non-primitive value in NAC3.
+pub trait ProxyValue<'ctx>: Into<Self::Base> {
+    /// The type of LLVM values represented by this instance. This is usually the
+    /// [LLVM pointer type][PointerValue].
+    type Base: BasicValue<'ctx>;
+
+    /// The type of this value.
+    type Type: ProxyType<'ctx, Value = Self>;
+
+    /// Checks whether `value` can be represented by this [`ProxyValue`].
+    fn is_instance<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        value: impl BasicValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        Self::Type::is_type(generator, ctx, value.as_basic_value_enum().get_type())
+    }
+
+    /// Checks whether `value` can be represented by this [`ProxyValue`].
+    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        value: Self::Base,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        Self::is_instance(generator, ctx, value.as_basic_value_enum())
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the [type][ProxyType] of this value.
+    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type;
+
+    /// Returns the [base value][Self::Base] of this proxy.
+    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base;
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/contiguous.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,202 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
+    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+
+use super::{ArrayLikeValue, NDArrayValue, ProxyValue};
+use crate::codegen::{
+    stmt::gen_if_callback,
+    types::{
+        ndarray::{ContiguousNDArrayType, NDArrayType},
+        structure::StructField,
+    },
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `ContiguousNDArray`, returning [Err] if `value` is
+    /// not an instance.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        <Self as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Type::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_pointer_value(
+        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        Self { value: ptr, item: dtype, llvm_usize, name }
+    }
+
+    fn ndims_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().ndims
+    }
+
+    pub fn store_ndims(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: IntValue<'ctx>) {
+        self.ndims_field().set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), value, self.name);
+    }
+
+    fn shape_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().shape
+    }
+
+    pub fn store_shape(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
+        self.shape_field().set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), value, self.name);
+    }
+
+    pub fn load_shape(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.shape_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    fn data_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().data
+    }
+
+    pub fn store_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
+        self.data_field().set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), value, self.name);
+    }
+
+    pub fn load_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.data_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
+        <Self as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Type::from_type(
+            self.as_base_value().get_type(),
+            self.item,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.value
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_value()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Create a [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] from the contents of this ndarray.
+    ///
+    /// This function may or may not be expensive depending on if this ndarray has contiguous data.
+    ///
+    /// If this ndarray is not C-contiguous, this function will allocate memory on the stack for the
+    /// `data` field of the returned [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] and copy contents of this ndarray to
+    /// there.
+    ///
+    /// If this ndarray is C-contiguous, contents of this ndarray will not be copied. The created
+    /// [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] will share memory with this ndarray.
+    pub fn make_contiguous_ndarray<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+        let result = ContiguousNDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, self.dtype)
+            .alloca(generator, ctx, self.name);
+
+        // Set ndims and shape.
+        let ndims = self
+            .ndims
+            .map_or_else(|| self.load_ndims(ctx), |ndims| self.llvm_usize.const_int(ndims, false));
+        result.store_ndims(ctx, ndims);
+
+        let shape = self.shape();
+        result.store_shape(ctx, shape.base_ptr(ctx, generator));
+
+        gen_if_callback(
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            |generator, ctx| Ok(self.is_c_contiguous(generator, ctx)),
+            |_, ctx| {
+                // This ndarray is contiguous.
+                let data = self.data_field(ctx).get(ctx, self.as_base_value(), self.name);
+                let data = ctx
+                    .builder
+                    .build_pointer_cast(data, result.item.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
+                    .unwrap();
+                result.store_data(ctx, data);
+
+                Ok(())
+            },
+            |generator, ctx| {
+                // This ndarray is not contiguous. Do a full-copy on `data`. `make_copy` produces an
+                // ndarray with contiguous `data`.
+                let copied_ndarray = self.make_copy(generator, ctx);
+                let data = copied_ndarray.data().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
+                let data = ctx
+                    .builder
+                    .build_pointer_cast(data, result.item.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
+                    .unwrap();
+                result.store_data(ctx, data);
+
+                Ok(())
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        result
+    }
+
+    /// Create an [`NDArrayValue`] from a [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`].
+    ///
+    /// The operation is cheap. The newly created [`NDArrayValue`] will share the same memory as the
+    /// [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`].
+    ///
+    /// `ndims` has to be provided as [`NDArrayValue`] requires a statically known `ndims` value,
+    /// despite the fact that the information should be contained within the
+    /// [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`].
+    pub fn from_contiguous_ndarray<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        carray: ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+        ndims: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // TODO: Debug assert `ndims == carray.ndims` to catch bugs.
+
+        // Allocate the resulting ndarray.
+        let ndarray = NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, carray.item, Some(ndims))
+            .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, carray.name);
+
+        // Copy shape and update strides
+        let shape = carray.load_shape(ctx);
+        ndarray.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, shape);
+        ndarray.set_strides_contiguous(generator, ctx);
+
+        // Share data
+        let data = carray.load_data(ctx);
+        ndarray.store_data(
+            ctx,
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_pointer_cast(data, ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
+                .unwrap(),
+        );
+
+        ndarray
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/indexing.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,262 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    types::IntType,
+    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use nac3parser::ast::{Expr, ExprKind};
+
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{
+        irrt,
+        types::{
+            ndarray::{NDArrayType, NDIndexType},
+            structure::StructField,
+            utils::SliceType,
+        },
+        values::{ndarray::NDArrayValue, utils::RustSlice, ProxyValue},
+        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+    },
+    typecheck::typedef::Type,
+};
+
+/// An IRRT representation of an ndarray subscript index.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct NDIndexValue<'ctx> {
+    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDIndexValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `ndindex`, returning [Err] if `value` is not an
+    /// instance.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        <Self as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Type::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`NDIndexValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_pointer_value(
+        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        Self { value: ptr, llvm_usize, name }
+    }
+
+    fn type_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().type_
+    }
+
+    pub fn load_type(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.type_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    pub fn store_type(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: IntValue<'ctx>) {
+        self.type_field().set(ctx, self.value, value, self.name);
+    }
+
+    fn data_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().data
+    }
+
+    pub fn load_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.data_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    pub fn store_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
+        self.data_field().set(ctx, self.value, value, self.name);
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for NDIndexValue<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = NDIndexType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
+        Self::Type::from_type(self.value.get_type(), self.llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.value
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<NDIndexValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: NDIndexValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_value()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Get the expected `ndims` after indexing with `indices`.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn deduce_ndims_after_indexing_with(&self, indices: &[RustNDIndex<'ctx>]) -> Option<u64> {
+        let mut ndims = self.ndims?;
+
+        for index in indices {
+            match index {
+                RustNDIndex::SingleElement(_) => {
+                    ndims -= 1; // Single elements decrements ndims
+                }
+                RustNDIndex::NewAxis => {
+                    ndims += 1; // `np.newaxis` / `none` adds a new axis
+                }
+                RustNDIndex::Ellipsis | RustNDIndex::Slice(_) => {}
+            }
+        }
+
+        Some(ndims)
+    }
+
+    /// Index into the ndarray, and return a newly-allocated view on this ndarray.
+    ///
+    /// This function behaves like NumPy's ndarray indexing, but if the indices index
+    /// into a single element, an unsized ndarray is returned.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn index<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        indices: &[RustNDIndex<'ctx>],
+    ) -> Self {
+        assert!(self.ndims.is_some(), "NDArrayValue::index is only supported for instances with compile-time known ndims (self.ndims = Some(...))");
+
+        let dst_ndims = self.deduce_ndims_after_indexing_with(indices);
+        let dst_ndarray = NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, self.dtype, dst_ndims)
+            .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, None);
+
+        let indices =
+            NDIndexType::new(generator, ctx.ctx).construct_ndindices(generator, ctx, indices);
+        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_index(generator, ctx, indices, *self, dst_ndarray);
+
+        dst_ndarray
+    }
+}
+
+/// A convenience enum representing a [`NDIndexValue`].
+// TODO: Rename to CTConstNDIndex
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub enum RustNDIndex<'ctx> {
+    SingleElement(IntValue<'ctx>),
+    Slice(RustSlice<'ctx>),
+    NewAxis,
+    Ellipsis,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> RustNDIndex<'ctx> {
+    /// Generate LLVM code to transform an ndarray subscript expression to
+    /// its list of [`RustNDIndex`]
+    ///
+    /// i.e.,
+    /// ```python
+    /// my_ndarray[::3, 1, :2:]
+    ///            ^^^^^^^^^^^ Then these into a three `RustNDIndex`es
+    /// ```
+    pub fn from_subscript_expr<G: CodeGenerator>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        subscript: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RustNDIndex<'ctx>>, String> {
+        // Annoying notes about `slice`
+        //  - `my_array[5]`
+        //    - slice is a `Constant`
+        //  - `my_array[:5]`
+        //    - slice is a `Slice`
+        //  - `my_array[:]`
+        //    - slice is a `Slice`, but lower upper step would all be `Option::None`
+        //  - `my_array[:, :]`
+        //    - slice is now a `Tuple` of two `Slice`-s
+        //
+        // In summary:
+        //  - when there is a comma "," within [], `slice` will be a `Tuple` of the entries.
+        //  - when there is not comma "," within [] (i.e., just a single entry), `slice` will be that entry itself.
+        //
+        // So we first "flatten" out the slice expression
+        let index_exprs = match &subscript.node {
+            ExprKind::Tuple { elts, .. } => elts.iter().collect_vec(),
+            _ => vec![subscript],
+        };
+
+        // Process all index expressions
+        let mut rust_ndindices: Vec<RustNDIndex> = Vec::with_capacity(index_exprs.len()); // Not using iterators here because `?` is used here.
+        for index_expr in index_exprs {
+            // NOTE: Currently nac3core's slices do not have an object representation,
+            // so the code/implementation looks awkward - we have to do pattern matching on the expression
+            let ndindex = if let ExprKind::Slice { lower, upper, step } = &index_expr.node {
+                // Handle slices
+                let slice = RustSlice::from_slice_expr(generator, ctx, lower, upper, step)?;
+                RustNDIndex::Slice(slice)
+            } else {
+                // Treat and handle everything else as a single element index.
+                let index = generator.gen_expr(ctx, index_expr)?.unwrap().to_basic_value_enum(
+                    ctx,
+                    generator,
+                    ctx.primitives.int32, // Must be int32, this checks for illegal values
+                )?;
+                let index = index.into_int_value();
+
+                RustNDIndex::SingleElement(index)
+            };
+            rust_ndindices.push(ndindex);
+        }
+        Ok(rust_ndindices)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the value to set `NDIndex::type` for this variant.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_type_id(&self) -> u64 {
+        // Defined in IRRT, must be in sync
+        match self {
+            RustNDIndex::SingleElement(_) => 0,
+            RustNDIndex::Slice(_) => 1,
+            RustNDIndex::NewAxis => 2,
+            RustNDIndex::Ellipsis => 3,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize this [`RustNDIndex`] by writing it into an LLVM [`NDIndexValue`].
+    pub fn write_to_ndindex<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dst_ndindex: NDIndexValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        let llvm_pi8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
+
+        // Set `dst_ndindex.type`
+        dst_ndindex.store_type(ctx, ctx.ctx.i8_type().const_int(self.get_type_id(), false));
+
+        // Set `dst_ndindex_ptr->data`
+        match self {
+            RustNDIndex::SingleElement(in_index) => {
+                let index_ptr = ctx.builder.build_alloca(ctx.ctx.i32_type(), "").unwrap();
+                ctx.builder.build_store(index_ptr, *in_index).unwrap();
+
+                dst_ndindex.store_data(
+                    ctx,
+                    ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(index_ptr, llvm_pi8, "").unwrap(),
+                );
+            }
+            RustNDIndex::Slice(in_rust_slice) => {
+                let user_slice_ptr =
+                    SliceType::new(ctx.ctx, ctx.ctx.i32_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx))
+                        .alloca(generator, ctx, None);
+                in_rust_slice.write_to_slice(ctx, user_slice_ptr);
+
+                dst_ndindex.store_data(
+                    ctx,
+                    ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(user_slice_ptr.into(), llvm_pi8, "").unwrap(),
+                );
+            }
+            RustNDIndex::NewAxis | RustNDIndex::Ellipsis => {}
+        }
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,933 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    types::{AnyType, AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
+};
+
+use super::{
+    ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ProxyValue, TypedArrayLikeAccessor, TypedArrayLikeMutator,
+    UntypedArrayLikeAccessor, UntypedArrayLikeMutator,
+};
+use crate::codegen::{
+    irrt,
+    llvm_intrinsics::{call_int_umin, call_memcpy_generic_array},
+    stmt::gen_for_callback_incrementing,
+    type_aligned_alloca,
+    types::{ndarray::NDArrayType, structure::StructField},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+pub use contiguous::*;
+pub use indexing::*;
+pub use nditer::*;
+pub use view::*;
+
+mod contiguous;
+mod indexing;
+mod nditer;
+mod view;
+
+/// Proxy type for accessing an `NDArray` value in LLVM.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+    ndims: Option<u64>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `NDArray`, returning [Err] if `value` is not an
+    /// instance.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        NDArrayType::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`NDArrayValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_pointer_value(
+        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+        ndims: Option<u64>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        NDArrayValue { value: ptr, dtype, ndims, llvm_usize, name }
+    }
+
+    fn ndims_field(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).ndims
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the pointer to the field storing the number of dimensions of this `NDArray`.
+    fn ptr_to_ndims(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.ndims_field(ctx).ptr_by_gep(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    /// Stores the number of dimensions `ndims` into this instance.
+    pub fn store_ndims<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+        ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(ndims.get_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx));
+
+        let pndims = self.ptr_to_ndims(ctx);
+        ctx.builder.build_store(pndims, ndims).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the number of dimensions of this `NDArray` as a value.
+    pub fn load_ndims(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        let pndims = self.ptr_to_ndims(ctx);
+        ctx.builder.build_load(pndims, "").map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn itemsize_field(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).itemsize
+    }
+
+    /// Stores the size of each element `itemsize` into this instance.
+    pub fn store_itemsize<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+        itemsize: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(itemsize.get_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx));
+
+        self.itemsize_field(ctx).set(ctx, self.value, itemsize, self.name);
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the size of each element of this `NDArray` as a value.
+    pub fn load_itemsize(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.itemsize_field(ctx).get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    fn shape_field(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).shape
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the double-indirection pointer to the `shape` array, as if by calling
+    /// `getelementptr` on the field.
+    fn ptr_to_shape(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.shape_field(ctx).ptr_by_gep(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    /// Stores the array of dimension sizes `dims` into this instance.
+    fn store_shape(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, dims: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
+        self.shape_field(ctx).set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), dims, self.name);
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience method for creating a new array storing dimension sizes with the given `size`.
+    pub fn create_shape(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        self.store_shape(ctx, ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_usize, size, "").unwrap());
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a proxy object to the field storing the size of each dimension of this `NDArray`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn shape(&self) -> NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+        NDArrayShapeProxy(self)
+    }
+
+    fn strides_field(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).strides
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the double-indirection pointer to the `strides` array, as if by calling
+    /// `getelementptr` on the field.
+    fn ptr_to_strides(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.strides_field(ctx).ptr_by_gep(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    /// Stores the array of stride sizes `strides` into this instance.
+    fn store_strides(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, strides: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
+        self.strides_field(ctx).set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), strides, self.name);
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience method for creating a new array storing the stride with the given `size`.
+    pub fn create_strides(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        self.store_strides(ctx, ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_usize, size, "").unwrap());
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a proxy object to the field storing the stride of each dimension of this `NDArray`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn strides(&self) -> NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+        NDArrayStridesProxy(self)
+    }
+
+    fn data_field(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).data
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the double-indirection pointer to the `data` array, as if by calling `getelementptr`
+    /// on the field.
+    pub fn ptr_to_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.data_field(ctx).ptr_by_gep(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    /// Stores the array of data elements `data` into this instance.
+    fn store_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, data: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
+        let data = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_bit_cast(data, ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
+            .unwrap();
+        self.data_field(ctx).set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), data.into_pointer_value(), self.name);
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience method for creating a new array storing data elements with the given element
+    /// type `elem_ty` and `size`.
+    ///
+    /// The data buffer will be allocated on the stack, and is considered to be owned by this ndarray instance.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    ///
+    /// The caller must ensure that `shape` and `itemsize` of this ndarray instance is initialized.
+    pub unsafe fn create_data<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) {
+        let nbytes = self.nbytes(generator, ctx);
+
+        let data = type_aligned_alloca(generator, ctx, self.dtype, nbytes, None);
+        self.store_data(ctx, data);
+
+        self.set_strides_contiguous(generator, ctx);
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a proxy object to the field storing the data of this `NDArray`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn data(&self) -> NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+        NDArrayDataProxy(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Copy shape dimensions from an array.
+    pub fn copy_shape_from_array<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        shape: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        let num_items = self.load_ndims(ctx);
+
+        call_memcpy_generic_array(
+            ctx,
+            self.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator),
+            shape,
+            num_items,
+            ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Copy shape dimensions from an ndarray.
+    /// Panics if `ndims` mismatches.
+    pub fn copy_shape_from_ndarray<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        src_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        if self.ndims.is_some() && src_ndarray.ndims.is_some() {
+            assert_eq!(self.ndims, src_ndarray.ndims);
+        } else {
+            let self_ndims = self.load_ndims(ctx);
+            let src_ndims = src_ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
+
+            ctx.make_assert(
+                generator,
+                ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
+                    IntPredicate::EQ,
+                    self_ndims,
+                    src_ndims,
+                    ""
+                ).unwrap(),
+                "0:AssertionError",
+                "NDArrayValue::copy_shape_from_ndarray: Expected self.ndims ({0}) == src_ndarray.ndims ({1})",
+                [Some(self_ndims), Some(src_ndims), None],
+                ctx.current_loc
+            );
+        }
+
+        let src_shape = src_ndarray.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
+        self.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, src_shape);
+    }
+
+    /// Copy strides dimensions from an array.
+    pub fn copy_strides_from_array<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        strides: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        let num_items = self.load_ndims(ctx);
+
+        call_memcpy_generic_array(
+            ctx,
+            self.strides().base_ptr(ctx, generator),
+            strides,
+            num_items,
+            ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(),
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Copy strides dimensions from an ndarray.
+    /// Panics if `ndims` mismatches.
+    pub fn copy_strides_from_ndarray<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        src_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        if self.ndims.is_some() && src_ndarray.ndims.is_some() {
+            assert_eq!(self.ndims, src_ndarray.ndims);
+        } else {
+            let self_ndims = self.load_ndims(ctx);
+            let src_ndims = src_ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
+
+            ctx.make_assert(
+                generator,
+                ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
+                    IntPredicate::EQ,
+                    self_ndims,
+                    src_ndims,
+                    ""
+                ).unwrap(),
+                "0:AssertionError",
+                "NDArrayValue::copy_shape_from_ndarray: Expected self.ndims ({0}) == src_ndarray.ndims ({1})",
+                [Some(self_ndims), Some(src_ndims), None],
+                ctx.current_loc
+            );
+        }
+
+        let src_strides = src_ndarray.strides().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
+        self.copy_strides_from_array(generator, ctx, src_strides);
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `np.size()` of this ndarray.
+    pub fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_size(generator, ctx, *self)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `ndarray.nbytes` of this ndarray.
+    pub fn nbytes<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_nbytes(generator, ctx, *self)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `len()` of this ndarray.
+    pub fn len<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_len(generator, ctx, *self)
+    }
+
+    /// Check if this ndarray is C-contiguous.
+    ///
+    /// See NumPy's `flags["C_CONTIGUOUS"]`: <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.flags.html#numpy.ndarray.flags>
+    pub fn is_c_contiguous<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous(generator, ctx, *self)
+    }
+
+    /// Call [`call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape`] on this ndarray to update `strides`.
+    ///
+    /// Update the ndarray's strides to make the ndarray contiguous.
+    pub fn set_strides_contiguous<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) {
+        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape(generator, ctx, *self);
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn make_copy<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let clone = if self.ndims.is_some() {
+            self.get_type().construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, None)
+        } else {
+            self.get_type().construct_dyn_ndims(generator, ctx, self.load_ndims(ctx), None)
+        };
+
+        let shape = self.shape();
+        clone.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, shape.base_ptr(ctx, generator));
+        unsafe { clone.create_data(generator, ctx) };
+        clone.copy_data_from(generator, ctx, *self);
+        clone
+    }
+
+    /// Copy data from another ndarray.
+    ///
+    /// This ndarray and `src` is that their `np.size()` should be the same. Their shapes
+    /// do not matter. The copying order is determined by how their flattened views look.
+    ///
+    /// Panics if the `dtype`s of ndarrays are different.
+    pub fn copy_data_from<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        src: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(self.dtype, src.dtype, "self and src dtype should match");
+        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_copy_data(generator, ctx, src, *self);
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if this ndarray is unsized - `ndims == 0` and only contains a scalar.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn is_unsized(&self) -> Option<bool> {
+        self.ndims.map(|ndims| ndims == 0)
+    }
+
+    /// If this ndarray is unsized, return its sole value as an [`AnyObject`].
+    /// Otherwise, do nothing and return the ndarray itself.
+    // TODO: Rename to get_unsized_element
+    pub fn split_unsized<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> ScalarOrNDArray<'ctx> {
+        let Some(is_unsized) = self.is_unsized() else { todo!() };
+
+        if is_unsized {
+            // NOTE: `np.size(self) == 0` here is never possible.
+            let zero = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx).const_zero();
+            let value = unsafe { self.data().get_unchecked(ctx, generator, &zero, None) };
+
+            ScalarOrNDArray::Scalar(value)
+        } else {
+            ScalarOrNDArray::NDArray(*self)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = NDArrayType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
+        NDArrayType::from_type(
+            self.as_base_value().get_type(),
+            self.dtype,
+            self.ndims,
+            self.llvm_usize,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.value
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<NDArrayValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: NDArrayValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_value()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Proxy type for accessing the `shape` array of an `NDArray` instance in LLVM.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, 'a>(&'a NDArrayValue<'ctx>);
+
+impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
+        self.0.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator).get_type().get_element_type()
+    }
+
+    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.0.shape_field(ctx).get(ctx, self.0.as_base_value(), self.0.name)
+    }
+
+    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.0.load_ndims(ctx)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let var_name = name.map(|v| format!("{v}.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
+
+        unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(self.base_ptr(ctx, generator), &[*idx], var_name.as_str())
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let size = self.size(ctx, generator);
+        let in_range = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, *idx, size, "").unwrap();
+        ctx.make_assert(
+            generator,
+            in_range,
+            "0:IndexError",
+            "index {0} is out of bounds for axis 0 with size {1}",
+            [Some(*idx), Some(self.0.load_ndims(ctx)), None],
+            ctx.current_loc,
+        );
+
+        unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
+impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
+
+impl<'ctx> TypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    fn downcast_to_type(
+        &self,
+        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        value.into_int_value()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> TypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    fn upcast_from_type(
+        &self,
+        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
+        value.into()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Proxy type for accessing the `strides` array of an `NDArray` instance in LLVM.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, 'a>(&'a NDArrayValue<'ctx>);
+
+impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
+        self.0.strides().base_ptr(ctx, generator).get_type().get_element_type()
+    }
+
+    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.0.strides_field(ctx).get(ctx, self.0.as_base_value(), self.0.name)
+    }
+
+    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.0.load_ndims(ctx)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let var_name = name.map(|v| format!("{v}.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
+
+        unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(self.base_ptr(ctx, generator), &[*idx], var_name.as_str())
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let size = self.size(ctx, generator);
+        let in_range = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, *idx, size, "").unwrap();
+        ctx.make_assert(
+            generator,
+            in_range,
+            "0:IndexError",
+            "index {0} is out of bounds for axis 0 with size {1}",
+            [Some(*idx), Some(self.0.load_ndims(ctx)), None],
+            ctx.current_loc,
+        );
+
+        unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
+impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
+
+impl<'ctx> TypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    fn downcast_to_type(
+        &self,
+        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        value.into_int_value()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> TypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    fn upcast_from_type(
+        &self,
+        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
+        value.into()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Proxy type for accessing the `data` array of an `NDArray` instance in LLVM.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, 'a>(&'a NDArrayValue<'ctx>);
+
+impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
+        self.0.dtype.as_any_type_enum()
+    }
+
+    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &G,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        self.0.data_field(ctx).get(ctx, self.0.as_base_value(), self.0.name)
+    }
+
+    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &G,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        irrt::ndarray::call_ndarray_calc_size(
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            &self.as_slice_value(ctx, generator),
+            (None, None),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx> for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
+    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let sizeof_elem = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(
+                self.element_type(ctx, generator).size_of().unwrap(),
+                idx.get_type(),
+                "",
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let idx = ctx.builder.build_int_mul(*idx, sizeof_elem, "").unwrap();
+        let ptr = unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(
+                    self.base_ptr(ctx, generator),
+                    &[idx],
+                    name.unwrap_or_default(),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        // Current implementation is transparent - The returned pointer type is
+        // already cast into the expected type, allowing for immediately
+        // load/store.
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_pointer_cast(
+                ptr,
+                BasicTypeEnum::try_from(self.element_type(ctx, generator))
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
+                "",
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let data_sz = self.size(ctx, generator);
+        let in_range = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, *idx, data_sz, "").unwrap();
+        ctx.make_assert(
+            generator,
+            in_range,
+            "0:IndexError",
+            "index {0} is out of bounds with size {1}",
+            [Some(*idx), Some(self.0.load_ndims(ctx)), None],
+            ctx.current_loc,
+        );
+
+        let ptr = unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) };
+
+        // Current implementation is transparent - The returned pointer type is
+        // already cast into the expected type, allowing for immediately
+        // load/store.
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_pointer_cast(
+                ptr,
+                BasicTypeEnum::try_from(self.element_type(ctx, generator))
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
+                "",
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
+impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
+
+impl<'ctx, Index: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx>> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index>
+    for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_>
+{
+    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        indices: &Index,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+
+        let indices_elem_ty = indices
+            .ptr_offset(ctx, generator, &llvm_usize.const_zero(), None)
+            .get_type()
+            .get_element_type();
+        let Ok(indices_elem_ty) = IntType::try_from(indices_elem_ty) else {
+            panic!("Expected list[int32] but got {indices_elem_ty}")
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            indices_elem_ty.get_bit_width(),
+            32,
+            "Expected list[int32] but got list[int{}]",
+            indices_elem_ty.get_bit_width()
+        );
+
+        let index = irrt::ndarray::call_ndarray_flatten_index(generator, ctx, *self.0, indices);
+        let sizeof_elem = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(
+                self.element_type(ctx, generator).size_of().unwrap(),
+                index.get_type(),
+                "",
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+        let index = ctx.builder.build_int_mul(index, sizeof_elem, "").unwrap();
+
+        let ptr = unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(
+                    self.base_ptr(ctx, generator),
+                    &[index],
+                    name.unwrap_or_default(),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+        // TODO: Current implementation is transparent
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_pointer_cast(
+                ptr,
+                BasicTypeEnum::try_from(self.element_type(ctx, generator))
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
+                "",
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        indices: &Index,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+
+        let indices_size = indices.size(ctx, generator);
+        let nidx_leq_ndims = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLE, indices_size, self.0.load_ndims(ctx), "")
+            .unwrap();
+        ctx.make_assert(
+            generator,
+            nidx_leq_ndims,
+            "0:IndexError",
+            "invalid index to scalar variable",
+            [None, None, None],
+            ctx.current_loc,
+        );
+
+        let indices_len = indices.size(ctx, generator);
+        let ndarray_len = self.0.load_ndims(ctx);
+        let len = call_int_umin(ctx, indices_len, ndarray_len, None);
+        gen_for_callback_incrementing(
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            None,
+            llvm_usize.const_zero(),
+            (len, false),
+            |generator, ctx, _, i| {
+                let (dim_idx, dim_sz) = unsafe {
+                    (
+                        indices.get_unchecked(ctx, generator, &i, None).into_int_value(),
+                        self.0.shape().get_typed_unchecked(ctx, generator, &i, None),
+                    )
+                };
+                let dim_idx = ctx
+                    .builder
+                    .build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(dim_idx, dim_sz.get_type(), "")
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                let dim_lt =
+                    ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, dim_idx, dim_sz, "").unwrap();
+
+                ctx.make_assert(
+                    generator,
+                    dim_lt,
+                    "0:IndexError",
+                    "index {0} is out of bounds for axis 0 with size {1}",
+                    [Some(dim_idx), Some(dim_sz), None],
+                    ctx.current_loc,
+                );
+
+                Ok(())
+            },
+            llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let ptr = unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, indices, name) };
+        // TODO: Current implementation is transparent
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_pointer_cast(
+                ptr,
+                BasicTypeEnum::try_from(self.element_type(ctx, generator))
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
+                "",
+            )
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, Index: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx>> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index>
+    for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_>
+{
+}
+impl<'ctx, Index: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx>> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index>
+    for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_>
+{
+}
+
+/// A version of [`call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape`] in Rust.
+///
+/// This function is used generating strides for globally defined contiguous ndarrays.
+#[must_use]
+pub fn make_contiguous_strides(itemsize: u64, ndims: u64, shape: &[u64]) -> Vec<u64> {
+    let mut strides = Vec::with_capacity(ndims as usize);
+    let mut stride_product = 1u64;
+    for i in 0..ndims {
+        let axis = ndims - i - 1;
+        strides[axis as usize] = stride_product * itemsize;
+        stride_product *= shape[axis as usize];
+    }
+    strides
+}
+
+/// A convenience enum for implementing functions that acts on scalars or ndarrays or both.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+pub enum ScalarOrNDArray<'ctx> {
+    Scalar(BasicValueEnum<'ctx>),
+    NDArray(NDArrayValue<'ctx>),
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ScalarOrNDArray<'ctx> {
+    /// Get the underlying [`BasicValueEnum<'ctx>`] of this [`ScalarOrNDArray`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn to_basic_value_enum(self) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
+        match self {
+            ScalarOrNDArray::Scalar(scalar) => scalar,
+            ScalarOrNDArray::NDArray(ndarray) => ndarray.as_base_value().into(),
+        }
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/nditer.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    types::{BasicType, IntType},
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+
+use super::{NDArrayValue, ProxyValue, TypedArrayLikeAccessor, TypedArrayLikeMutator};
+use crate::codegen::{
+    irrt,
+    stmt::{gen_for_callback, BreakContinueHooks},
+    types::{ndarray::NDIterType, structure::StructField},
+    values::{ArraySliceValue, TypedArrayLikeAdapter},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct NDIterValue<'ctx> {
+    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    parent: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+    indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDIterValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `NDArray`, returning [Err] if `value` is not an
+    /// instance.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        <Self as ProxyValue>::Type::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`NDArrayValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_pointer_value(
+        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        parent: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
+        indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        Self { value: ptr, parent, indices, llvm_usize, name }
+    }
+
+    /// Is the current iteration valid?
+    ///
+    /// If true, then `element`, `indices` and `nth` contain details about the current element.
+    ///
+    /// If `ndarray` is unsized, this returns true only for the first iteration.
+    /// If `ndarray` is 0-sized, this always returns false.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn has_element<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_nditer_has_element(generator, ctx, *self)
+    }
+
+    /// Go to the next element. If `has_element()` is false, then this has undefined behavior.
+    ///
+    /// If `ndarray` is unsized, this can only be called once.
+    /// If `ndarray` is 0-sized, this can never be called.
+    pub fn next<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(&self, generator: &G, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) {
+        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_nditer_next(generator, ctx, *self);
+    }
+
+    fn element(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).element
+    }
+
+    /// Get pointer to the current element.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_pointer(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let elem_ty = self.parent.dtype;
+
+        let p = self.element(ctx).get(ctx, self.as_base_value(), None);
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_pointer_cast(p, elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "element")
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the value of the current element.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_scalar(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
+        let p = self.get_pointer(ctx);
+        ctx.builder.build_load(p, "value").unwrap()
+    }
+
+    fn nth(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).nth
+    }
+
+    /// Get the index of the current element if this ndarray were a flat ndarray.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_index(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.nth(ctx).get(ctx, self.as_base_value(), None)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the indices of the current element.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_indices(
+        &'ctx self,
+    ) -> impl TypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> + TypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>
+    {
+        TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
+            self.indices,
+            Box::new(|ctx, val| {
+                ctx.builder
+                    .build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(val.into_int_value(), self.llvm_usize, "")
+                    .unwrap()
+            }),
+            Box::new(|_, val| val.into()),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for NDIterValue<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = NDIterType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
+        NDIterType::from_type(self.as_base_value().get_type(), self.llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.value
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<NDIterValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: NDIterValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_value()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Iterate through every element in the ndarray.
+    ///
+    /// `body` has access to [`BreakContinueHooks`] to short-circuit and [`NDIterValue`] to
+    /// get properties of the current iteration (e.g., the current element, indices, etc.)
+    pub fn foreach<'a, G, F>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
+        body: F,
+    ) -> Result<(), String>
+    where
+        G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
+        F: FnOnce(
+            &mut G,
+            &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
+            BreakContinueHooks<'ctx>,
+            NDIterValue<'ctx>,
+        ) -> Result<(), String>,
+    {
+        gen_for_callback(
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            Some("ndarray_foreach"),
+            |generator, ctx| {
+                Ok(NDIterType::new(generator, ctx.ctx).construct(generator, ctx, *self))
+            },
+            |generator, ctx, nditer| Ok(nditer.has_element(generator, ctx)),
+            |generator, ctx, hooks, nditer| body(generator, ctx, hooks, nditer),
+            |generator, ctx, nditer| {
+                nditer.next(generator, ctx);
+                Ok(())
+            },
+        )
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/view.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+use std::iter::{once, repeat_n};
+
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use crate::codegen::{
+    values::ndarray::{NDArrayValue, RustNDIndex},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Make sure the ndarray is at least `ndmin`-dimensional.
+    ///
+    /// If this ndarray's `ndims` is less than `ndmin`, a view is created on this with 1s prepended
+    /// to the shape. Otherwise, this function does nothing and return this ndarray.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn atleast_nd<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ndmin: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        assert!(self.ndims.is_some(), "NDArrayValue::atleast_nd is only supported for instances with compile-time known ndims (self.ndims = Some(...))");
+
+        let ndims = self.ndims.unwrap();
+
+        if ndims < ndmin {
+            // Extend the dimensions with np.newaxis.
+            let indices = repeat_n(RustNDIndex::NewAxis, (ndmin - ndims) as usize)
+                .chain(once(RustNDIndex::Ellipsis))
+                .collect_vec();
+            self.index(generator, ctx, &indices)
+        } else {
+            *self
+        }
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/values/range.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,153 @@
+use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue};
+
+use super::ProxyValue;
+use crate::codegen::{types::RangeType, CodeGenContext};
+
+/// Proxy type for accessing a `range` value in LLVM.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct RangeValue<'ctx> {
+    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> RangeValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `range`, returning [Err] if `value` is not an instance.
+    pub fn is_representable(value: PointerValue<'ctx>) -> Result<(), String> {
+        RangeType::is_representable(value.get_type())
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`RangeValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_pointer_value(ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>, name: Option<&'ctx str>) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr).is_ok());
+
+        RangeValue { value: ptr, name }
+    }
+
+    fn ptr_to_start(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+        let var_name = self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.start.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
+
+        unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(
+                    self.as_base_value(),
+                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_int(0, false)],
+                    var_name.as_str(),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn ptr_to_end(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+        let var_name = self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.end.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
+
+        unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(
+                    self.as_base_value(),
+                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_int(1, false)],
+                    var_name.as_str(),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn ptr_to_step(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+        let var_name = self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.step.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
+
+        unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(
+                    self.as_base_value(),
+                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_int(2, false)],
+                    var_name.as_str(),
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Stores the `start` value into this instance.
+    pub fn store_start(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, start: IntValue<'ctx>) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(start.get_type().get_bit_width(), 32);
+
+        let pstart = self.ptr_to_start(ctx);
+        ctx.builder.build_store(pstart, start).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the `start` value of this `range`.
+    pub fn load_start(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, name: Option<&str>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        let pstart = self.ptr_to_start(ctx);
+        let var_name = name
+            .map(ToString::to_string)
+            .or_else(|| self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.start")))
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_load(pstart, var_name.as_str())
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Stores the `end` value into this instance.
+    pub fn store_end(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, end: IntValue<'ctx>) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(end.get_type().get_bit_width(), 32);
+
+        let pend = self.ptr_to_end(ctx);
+        ctx.builder.build_store(pend, end).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the `end` value of this `range`.
+    pub fn load_end(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, name: Option<&str>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        let pend = self.ptr_to_end(ctx);
+        let var_name = name
+            .map(ToString::to_string)
+            .or_else(|| self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.end")))
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
+        ctx.builder.build_load(pend, var_name.as_str()).map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Stores the `step` value into this instance.
+    pub fn store_step(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, step: IntValue<'ctx>) {
+        debug_assert_eq!(step.get_type().get_bit_width(), 32);
+
+        let pstep = self.ptr_to_step(ctx);
+        ctx.builder.build_store(pstep, step).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the `step` value of this `range`.
+    pub fn load_step(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, name: Option<&str>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        let pstep = self.ptr_to_step(ctx);
+        let var_name = name
+            .map(ToString::to_string)
+            .or_else(|| self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.step")))
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_load(pstep, var_name.as_str())
+            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for RangeValue<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = RangeType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
+        RangeType::from_type(self.value.get_type())
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.value
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<RangeValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: RangeValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_value()
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/values/utils/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+pub use slice::*;
+
+mod slice;

nac3core/src/codegen/values/utils/slice.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,231 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    types::IntType,
+    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+};
+
+use nac3parser::ast::Expr;
+
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{
+        types::{structure::StructField, utils::SliceType},
+        values::ProxyValue,
+        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+    },
+    typecheck::typedef::Type,
+};
+
+/// An IRRT representation of an (unresolved) slice.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
+    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    int_ty: IntType<'ctx>,
+    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> SliceValue<'ctx> {
+    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `ContiguousNDArray`, returning [Err] if `value` is
+    /// not an instance.
+    pub fn is_representable(
+        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        <Self as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Type::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an [`SliceValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn from_pointer_value(
+        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+        int_ty: IntType<'ctx>,
+        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
+
+        Self { value: ptr, int_ty, llvm_usize, name }
+    }
+
+    fn start_defined_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().start_defined
+    }
+
+    pub fn load_start_defined(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.start_defined_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    fn start_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().start
+    }
+
+    pub fn load_start(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.start_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    pub fn store_start(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>) {
+        match value {
+            Some(start) => {
+                self.start_defined_field().set(
+                    ctx,
+                    self.value,
+                    ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_all_ones(),
+                    self.name,
+                );
+                self.start_field().set(ctx, self.value, start, self.name);
+            }
+
+            None => self.start_defined_field().set(
+                ctx,
+                self.value,
+                ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(),
+                self.name,
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn stop_defined_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().stop_defined
+    }
+
+    pub fn load_stop_defined(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.stop_defined_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    fn stop_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().stop
+    }
+
+    pub fn load_stop(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.stop_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    pub fn store_stop(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>) {
+        match value {
+            Some(stop) => {
+                self.stop_defined_field().set(
+                    ctx,
+                    self.value,
+                    ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_all_ones(),
+                    self.name,
+                );
+                self.stop_field().set(ctx, self.value, stop, self.name);
+            }
+
+            None => self.stop_defined_field().set(
+                ctx,
+                self.value,
+                ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(),
+                self.name,
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn step_defined_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().step_defined
+    }
+
+    pub fn load_step_defined(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.step_defined_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    fn step_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
+        self.get_type().get_fields().step
+    }
+
+    pub fn load_step(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.step_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
+    }
+
+    pub fn store_step(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>) {
+        match value {
+            Some(step) => {
+                self.step_defined_field().set(
+                    ctx,
+                    self.value,
+                    ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_all_ones(),
+                    self.name,
+                );
+                self.step_field().set(ctx, self.value, step, self.name);
+            }
+
+            None => self.step_defined_field().set(
+                ctx,
+                self.value,
+                ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(),
+                self.name,
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for SliceValue<'ctx> {
+    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = SliceType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
+        Self::Type::from_type(self.value.get_type(), self.int_ty, self.llvm_usize)
+    }
+
+    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
+        self.value
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> From<SliceValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
+    fn from(value: SliceValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        value.as_base_value()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A slice represented in compile-time by `start`, `stop` and `step`, all held as LLVM values.
+// TODO: Rename this to CTConstSlice
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct RustSlice<'ctx> {
+    int_ty: IntType<'ctx>,
+    start: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    stop: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>,
+    step: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> RustSlice<'ctx> {
+    /// Generate LLVM IR for an [`ExprKind::Slice`] and convert it into a [`RustSlice`].
+    #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
+    pub fn from_slice_expr<G: CodeGenerator>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        lower: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>,
+        upper: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>,
+        step: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>,
+    ) -> Result<RustSlice<'ctx>, String> {
+        let mut value_mapper = |value_expr: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>| -> Result<_, String> {
+            Ok(match value_expr {
+                None => None,
+                Some(value_expr) => {
+                    let value_expr = generator
+                        .gen_expr(ctx, value_expr)?
+                        .map(|value| {
+                            value.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, ctx.primitives.int32)
+                        })
+                        .unwrap()?;
+
+                    Some(value_expr.into_int_value())
+                }
+            })
+        };
+
+        let start = value_mapper(lower)?;
+        let stop = value_mapper(upper)?;
+        let step = value_mapper(step)?;
+
+        Ok(RustSlice { int_ty: ctx.ctx.i32_type(), start, stop, step })
+    }
+
+    /// Write the contents to an LLVM [`SliceValue`].
+    pub fn write_to_slice(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, dst_slice_ptr: SliceValue<'ctx>) {
+        assert_eq!(self.int_ty, dst_slice_ptr.int_ty);
+
+        dst_slice_ptr.store_start(ctx, self.start);
+        dst_slice_ptr.store_stop(ctx, self.stop);
+        dst_slice_ptr.store_step(ctx, self.step);
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/lib.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,25 @@
-#![warn(clippy::all)]
+#![deny(future_incompatible, let_underscore, nonstandard_style, clippy::all)]
-#![allow(dead_code)]
+#![warn(clippy::pedantic)]
+#![allow(
+    dead_code,
+    clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
+    clippy::cast_sign_loss,
+    clippy::enum_glob_use,
+    clippy::missing_errors_doc,
+    clippy::missing_panics_doc,
+    clippy::module_name_repetitions,
+    clippy::similar_names,
+    clippy::too_many_lines,
+    clippy::wildcard_imports
+)]
+
+// users of nac3core need to use the same version of these dependencies, so expose them as nac3core::*
+pub use inkwell;
+pub use nac3parser;
 
 pub mod codegen;
 pub mod symbol_resolver;
 pub mod toplevel;
 pub mod typecheck;
+
+extern crate self as nac3core;

nac3core/src/symbol_resolver.rs

@@ -1,24 +1,24 @@
-use std::fmt::Debug;
+use std::{
-use std::sync::Arc;
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-use std::{collections::HashMap, collections::HashSet, fmt::Display};
+    fmt::{Debug, Display},
-use std::rc::Rc;
+    rc::Rc,
-
+    sync::Arc,
-use crate::typecheck::typedef::TypeEnum;
-use crate::{
-    codegen::CodeGenContext,
-    toplevel::{DefinitionId, TopLevelDef, type_annotation::TypeAnnotation},
 };
+
+use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue};
+use itertools::{chain, izip, Itertools};
+use parking_lot::RwLock;
+
+use nac3parser::ast::{Constant, Expr, Location, StrRef};
+
 use crate::{
-    codegen::CodeGenerator,
+    codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    toplevel::{type_annotation::TypeAnnotation, DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
     typecheck::{
         type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore,
-        typedef::{Type, Unifier},
+        typedef::{Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
     },
 };
-use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue};
-use itertools::{chain, izip};
-use nac3parser::ast::{Constant, Expr, Location, StrRef};
-use parking_lot::RwLock;
 
 #[derive(Clone, PartialEq, Debug)]
 pub enum SymbolValue {
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ impl SymbolValue {
         constant: &Constant,
         expected_ty: Type,
         primitives: &PrimitiveStore,
-        unifier: &mut Unifier
+        unifier: &mut Unifier,
     ) -> Result<Self, String> {
         match constant {
             Constant::None => {
@@ -66,35 +66,30 @@ impl SymbolValue {
                 } else {
                     Err(format!("Expected {expected_ty:?}, but got str"))
                 }
-            },
+            }
             Constant::Int(i) => {
                 if unifier.unioned(expected_ty, primitives.int32) {
-                    i32::try_from(*i)
+                    i32::try_from(*i).map(SymbolValue::I32).map_err(|e| e.to_string())
-                        .map(SymbolValue::I32)
-                        .map_err(|e| e.to_string())
                 } else if unifier.unioned(expected_ty, primitives.int64) {
-                    i64::try_from(*i)
+                    i64::try_from(*i).map(SymbolValue::I64).map_err(|e| e.to_string())
-                        .map(SymbolValue::I64)
-                        .map_err(|e| e.to_string())
                 } else if unifier.unioned(expected_ty, primitives.uint32) {
-                    u32::try_from(*i)
+                    u32::try_from(*i).map(SymbolValue::U32).map_err(|e| e.to_string())
-                        .map(SymbolValue::U32)
-                        .map_err(|e| e.to_string())
                 } else if unifier.unioned(expected_ty, primitives.uint64) {
-                    u64::try_from(*i)
+                    u64::try_from(*i).map(SymbolValue::U64).map_err(|e| e.to_string())
-                        .map(SymbolValue::U64)
-                        .map_err(|e| e.to_string())
                 } else {
                     Err(format!("Expected {}, but got int", unifier.stringify(expected_ty)))
                 }
             }
             Constant::Tuple(t) => {
                 let expected_ty = unifier.get_ty(expected_ty);
-                let TypeEnum::TTuple { ty } = expected_ty.as_ref() else {
+                let TypeEnum::TTuple { ty, is_vararg_ctx } = expected_ty.as_ref() else {
-                    return Err(format!("Expected {:?}, but got Tuple", expected_ty.get_type_name()))
+                    return Err(format!(
+                        "Expected {:?}, but got Tuple",
+                        expected_ty.get_type_name()
+                    ));
                 };
 
-                assert_eq!(ty.len(), t.len());
+                assert!(*is_vararg_ctx || ty.len() == t.len());
 
                 let elems = t
                     .iter()
@@ -109,7 +104,45 @@ impl SymbolValue {
                 } else {
                     Err(format!("Expected {expected_ty:?}, but got float"))
                 }
-            },
+            }
+            _ => Err(format!("Unsupported value type {constant:?}")),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a [`SymbolValue`] from a [`Constant`], with its type being inferred from the constant value.
+    ///
+    /// * `constant` - The constant to create the value from.
+    pub fn from_constant_inferred(constant: &Constant) -> Result<Self, String> {
+        match constant {
+            Constant::None => Ok(SymbolValue::OptionNone),
+            Constant::Bool(b) => Ok(SymbolValue::Bool(*b)),
+            Constant::Str(s) => Ok(SymbolValue::Str(s.to_string())),
+            Constant::Int(i) => {
+                let i = *i;
+                if i >= 0 {
+                    i32::try_from(i)
+                        .map(SymbolValue::I32)
+                        .or_else(|_| i64::try_from(i).map(SymbolValue::I64))
+                        .map_err(|_| {
+                            format!("Literal cannot be expressed as any integral type: {i}")
+                        })
+                } else {
+                    u32::try_from(i)
+                        .map(SymbolValue::U32)
+                        .or_else(|_| u64::try_from(i).map(SymbolValue::U64))
+                        .map_err(|_| {
+                            format!("Literal cannot be expressed as any integral type: {i}")
+                        })
+                }
+            }
+            Constant::Tuple(t) => {
+                let elems = t
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(Self::from_constant_inferred)
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<SymbolValue>, _>>()?;
+                Ok(SymbolValue::Tuple(elems))
+            }
+            Constant::Float(f) => Ok(SymbolValue::Double(*f)),
             _ => Err(format!("Unsupported value type {constant:?}")),
         }
     }
@@ -125,28 +158,27 @@ impl SymbolValue {
             SymbolValue::Double(_) => primitives.float,
             SymbolValue::Bool(_) => primitives.bool,
             SymbolValue::Tuple(vs) => {
-                let vs_tys = vs
+                let vs_tys = vs.iter().map(|v| v.get_type(primitives, unifier)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                    .iter()
+                unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TTuple { ty: vs_tys, is_vararg_ctx: false })
-                    .map(|v| v.get_type(primitives, unifier))
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TTuple {
-                    ty: vs_tys,
-                })
             }
             SymbolValue::OptionSome(_) | SymbolValue::OptionNone => primitives.option,
         }
     }
 
     /// Returns the [`TypeAnnotation`] representing the data type of this value.
-    pub fn get_type_annotation(&self, primitives: &PrimitiveStore, unifier: &mut Unifier) -> TypeAnnotation {
+    pub fn get_type_annotation(
+        &self,
+        primitives: &PrimitiveStore,
+        unifier: &mut Unifier,
+    ) -> TypeAnnotation {
         match self {
-            SymbolValue::Bool(..) => TypeAnnotation::Primitive(primitives.bool),
+            SymbolValue::Bool(..)
-            SymbolValue::Double(..) => TypeAnnotation::Primitive(primitives.float),
+            | SymbolValue::Double(..)
-            SymbolValue::I32(..) => TypeAnnotation::Primitive(primitives.int32),
+            | SymbolValue::I32(..)
-            SymbolValue::I64(..) => TypeAnnotation::Primitive(primitives.int64),
+            | SymbolValue::I64(..)
-            SymbolValue::U32(..) => TypeAnnotation::Primitive(primitives.uint32),
+            | SymbolValue::U32(..)
-            SymbolValue::U64(..) => TypeAnnotation::Primitive(primitives.uint64),
+            | SymbolValue::U64(..)
-            SymbolValue::Str(..) => TypeAnnotation::Primitive(primitives.str),
+            | SymbolValue::Str(..) => TypeAnnotation::Primitive(self.get_type(primitives, unifier)),
             SymbolValue::Tuple(vs) => {
                 let vs_tys = vs
                     .iter()
@@ -155,13 +187,13 @@ impl SymbolValue {
                 TypeAnnotation::Tuple(vs_tys)
             }
             SymbolValue::OptionNone => TypeAnnotation::CustomClass {
-                id: primitives.option.get_obj_id(unifier),
+                id: primitives.option.obj_id(unifier).unwrap(),
                 params: Vec::default(),
             },
             SymbolValue::OptionSome(v) => {
                 let ty = v.get_type_annotation(primitives, unifier);
                 TypeAnnotation::CustomClass {
-                    id: primitives.option.get_obj_id(unifier),
+                    id: primitives.option.obj_id(unifier).unwrap(),
                     params: vec![ty],
                 }
             }
@@ -169,7 +201,11 @@ impl SymbolValue {
     }
 
     /// Returns the [`TypeEnum`] representing the data type of this value.
-    pub fn get_type_enum(&self, primitives: &PrimitiveStore, unifier: &mut Unifier) -> Rc<TypeEnum> {
+    pub fn get_type_enum(
+        &self,
+        primitives: &PrimitiveStore,
+        unifier: &mut Unifier,
+    ) -> Rc<TypeEnum> {
         let ty = self.get_type(primitives, unifier);
         unifier.get_ty(ty)
     }
@@ -200,6 +236,38 @@ impl Display for SymbolValue {
     }
 }
 
+impl TryFrom<SymbolValue> for u64 {
+    type Error = ();
+
+    /// Tries to convert a [`SymbolValue`] into a [`u64`], returning [`Err`] if the value is not
+    /// numeric or if the value cannot be converted into a `u64` without overflow.
+    fn try_from(value: SymbolValue) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match value {
+            SymbolValue::I32(v) => u64::try_from(v).map_err(|_| ()),
+            SymbolValue::I64(v) => u64::try_from(v).map_err(|_| ()),
+            SymbolValue::U32(v) => Ok(u64::from(v)),
+            SymbolValue::U64(v) => Ok(v),
+            _ => Err(()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<SymbolValue> for i128 {
+    type Error = ();
+
+    /// Tries to convert a [`SymbolValue`] into a [`i128`], returning [`Err`] if the value is not
+    /// numeric.
+    fn try_from(value: SymbolValue) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match value {
+            SymbolValue::I32(v) => Ok(i128::from(v)),
+            SymbolValue::I64(v) => Ok(i128::from(v)),
+            SymbolValue::U32(v) => Ok(i128::from(v)),
+            SymbolValue::U64(v) => Ok(i128::from(v)),
+            _ => Err(()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 pub trait StaticValue {
     /// Returns a unique identifier for this value.
     fn get_unique_identifier(&self) -> u64;
@@ -232,10 +300,10 @@ pub trait StaticValue {
 
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub enum ValueEnum<'ctx> {
-    /// [ValueEnum] representing a static value.
+    /// [`ValueEnum`] representing a static value.
     Static(Arc<dyn StaticValue + Send + Sync>),
 
-    /// [ValueEnum] representing a dynamic value.
+    /// [`ValueEnum`] representing a dynamic value.
     Dynamic(BasicValueEnum<'ctx>),
 }
 
@@ -270,7 +338,6 @@ impl<'ctx> From<StructValue<'ctx>> for ValueEnum<'ctx> {
 }
 
 impl<'ctx> ValueEnum<'ctx> {
-
     /// Converts this [`ValueEnum`] to a [`BasicValueEnum`].
     pub fn to_basic_value_enum<'a>(
         self,
@@ -302,6 +369,7 @@ pub trait SymbolResolver {
         &self,
         str: StrRef,
         ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
     ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>>;
 
     fn get_default_param_value(&self, expr: &Expr) -> Option<SymbolValue>;
@@ -312,7 +380,7 @@ pub trait SymbolResolver {
         &self,
         _unifier: &mut Unifier,
         _top_level_defs: &[Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>],
-        _primitives: &PrimitiveStore
+        _primitives: &PrimitiveStore,
     ) -> Result<(), String> {
         Ok(())
     }
@@ -325,12 +393,12 @@ thread_local! {
         "float".into(),
         "bool".into(),
         "virtual".into(),
-        "list".into(),
         "tuple".into(),
         "str".into(),
         "Exception".into(),
         "uint32".into(),
         "uint64".into(),
+        "Literal".into(),
     ];
 }
 
@@ -349,12 +417,12 @@ pub fn parse_type_annotation<T>(
     let float_id = ids[2];
     let bool_id = ids[3];
     let virtual_id = ids[4];
-    let list_id = ids[5];
+    let tuple_id = ids[5];
-    let tuple_id = ids[6];
+    let str_id = ids[6];
-    let str_id = ids[7];
+    let exn_id = ids[7];
-    let exn_id = ids[8];
+    let uint32_id = ids[8];
-    let uint32_id = ids[9];
+    let uint64_id = ids[9];
-    let uint64_id = ids[10];
+    let literal_id = ids[10];
 
     let name_handling = |id: &StrRef, loc: Location, unifier: &mut Unifier| {
         if *id == int32_id {
@@ -379,40 +447,29 @@ pub fn parse_type_annotation<T>(
                 let def = top_level_defs[obj_id.0].read();
                 if let TopLevelDef::Class { fields, methods, type_vars, .. } = &*def {
                     if !type_vars.is_empty() {
-                        return Err(HashSet::from([
+                        return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
-                            format!(
+                            "Unexpected number of type parameters: expected {} but got 0",
-                                "Unexpected number of type parameters: expected {} but got 0",
+                            type_vars.len()
-                                type_vars.len()
+                        )]));
-                            ),
-                        ]))
                     }
                     let fields = chain(
                         fields.iter().map(|(k, v, m)| (*k, (*v, *m))),
                         methods.iter().map(|(k, v, _)| (*k, (*v, false))),
                     )
-                        .collect();
+                    .collect();
-                    Ok(unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TObj {
+                    Ok(unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, fields, params: VarMap::default() }))
-                        obj_id,
-                        fields,
-                        params: HashMap::default(),
-                    }))
                 } else {
-                    Err(HashSet::from([
+                    Err(HashSet::from([format!("Cannot use function name as type at {loc}")]))
-                        format!("Cannot use function name as type at {loc}"),
-                    ]))
                 }
             } else {
-                let ty = resolver
+                let ty =
-                    .get_symbol_type(unifier, top_level_defs, primitives, *id)
+                    resolver.get_symbol_type(unifier, top_level_defs, primitives, *id).map_err(
-                    .map_err(|e| HashSet::from([
+                        |e| HashSet::from([format!("Unknown type annotation at {loc}: {e}")]),
-                        format!("Unknown type annotation at {loc}: {e}"),
+                    )?;
-                    ]))?;
                 if let TypeEnum::TVar { .. } = &*unifier.get_ty(ty) {
                     Ok(ty)
                 } else {
-                    Err(HashSet::from([
+                    Err(HashSet::from([format!("Unknown type annotation {id} at {loc}")]))
-                        format!("Unknown type annotation {id} at {loc}"),
-                    ]))
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -422,9 +479,6 @@ pub fn parse_type_annotation<T>(
         if *id == virtual_id {
             let ty = parse_type_annotation(resolver, top_level_defs, unifier, primitives, slice)?;
             Ok(unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TVirtual { ty }))
-        } else if *id == list_id {
-            let ty = parse_type_annotation(resolver, top_level_defs, unifier, primitives, slice)?;
-            Ok(unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TList { ty }))
         } else if *id == tuple_id {
             if let Tuple { elts, .. } = &slice.node {
                 let ty = elts
@@ -433,12 +487,33 @@ pub fn parse_type_annotation<T>(
                         parse_type_annotation(resolver, top_level_defs, unifier, primitives, elt)
                     })
                     .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
-                Ok(unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TTuple { ty }))
+                Ok(unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TTuple { ty, is_vararg_ctx: false }))
             } else {
-                Err(HashSet::from([
+                Err(HashSet::from(["Expected multiple elements for tuple".into()]))
-                    "Expected multiple elements for tuple".into()
-                ]))
             }
+        } else if *id == literal_id {
+            let mut parse_literal = |elt: &Expr<T>| {
+                let ty = parse_type_annotation(resolver, top_level_defs, unifier, primitives, elt)?;
+                let ty_enum = &*unifier.get_ty_immutable(ty);
+                match ty_enum {
+                    TypeEnum::TLiteral { values, .. } => Ok(values.clone()),
+                    _ => Err(HashSet::from([format!(
+                        "Expected literal in type argument for Literal at {}",
+                        elt.location
+                    )])),
+                }
+            };
+
+            let values = if let Tuple { elts, .. } = &slice.node {
+                elts.iter().map(&mut parse_literal).collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?
+            } else {
+                vec![parse_literal(slice)?]
+            }
+            .into_iter()
+            .flatten()
+            .collect_vec();
+
+            Ok(unifier.get_fresh_literal(values, Some(slice.location)))
         } else {
             let types = if let Tuple { elts, .. } = &slice.node {
                 elts.iter()
@@ -454,15 +529,13 @@ pub fn parse_type_annotation<T>(
             let def = top_level_defs[obj_id.0].read();
             if let TopLevelDef::Class { fields, methods, type_vars, .. } = &*def {
                 if types.len() != type_vars.len() {
-                    return Err(HashSet::from([
+                    return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
-                        format!(
+                        "Unexpected number of type parameters: expected {} but got {}",
-                            "Unexpected number of type parameters: expected {} but got {}",
+                        type_vars.len(),
-                            type_vars.len(),
+                        types.len()
-                            types.len()
+                    )]));
-                        ),
-                    ]))
                 }
-                let mut subst = HashMap::new();
+                let mut subst = VarMap::new();
                 for (var, ty) in izip!(type_vars.iter(), types.iter()) {
                     let id = if let TypeEnum::TVar { id, .. } = &*unifier.get_ty(*var) {
                         *id
@@ -484,9 +557,7 @@ pub fn parse_type_annotation<T>(
                 }));
                 Ok(unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, fields, params: subst }))
             } else {
-                Err(HashSet::from([
+                Err(HashSet::from(["Cannot use function name as type".into()]))
-                    "Cannot use function name as type".into(),
-                ]))
             }
         }
     };
@@ -497,14 +568,13 @@ pub fn parse_type_annotation<T>(
             if let Name { id, .. } = &value.node {
                 subscript_name_handle(id, slice, unifier)
             } else {
-                Err(HashSet::from([
+                Err(HashSet::from([format!("unsupported type expression at {}", expr.location)]))
-                    format!("unsupported type expression at {}", expr.location),
-                ]))
             }
         }
-        _ => Err(HashSet::from([
+        Constant { value, .. } => SymbolValue::from_constant_inferred(value)
-            format!("unsupported type expression at {}", expr.location),
+            .map(|v| unifier.get_fresh_literal(vec![v], Some(expr.location)))
-        ])),
+            .map_err(|err| HashSet::from([err])),
+        _ => Err(HashSet::from([format!("unsupported type expression at {}", expr.location)])),
     }
 }
 

nac3core/src/toplevel/mod.rs

@@ -6,53 +6,64 @@ use std::{
     sync::Arc,
 };
 
-use super::codegen::CodeGenContext;
-use super::typecheck::type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore;
-use super::typecheck::typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg, SharedUnifier, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier};
-use crate::{
-    codegen::CodeGenerator,
-    symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, ValueEnum},
-    typecheck::{type_inferencer::CodeLocation, typedef::CallId},
-};
 use inkwell::values::BasicValueEnum;
-use itertools::{izip, Itertools};
+use itertools::Itertools;
-use nac3parser::ast::{self, Location, Stmt, StrRef};
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
 
-#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Clone, Copy, Hash, Debug)]
+use nac3parser::ast::{self, Expr, Location, Stmt, StrRef};
-pub struct DefinitionId(pub usize);
+
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, ValueEnum},
+    typecheck::{
+        type_inferencer::{CodeLocation, PrimitiveStore},
+        typedef::{
+            CallId, FunSignature, FuncArg, SharedUnifier, Type, TypeEnum, TypeVarId, Unifier,
+            VarMap,
+        },
+    },
+};
+use composer::*;
+use type_annotation::*;
 
 pub mod builtins;
 pub mod composer;
 pub mod helper;
-pub mod type_annotation;
+pub mod numpy;
-use composer::*;
-use type_annotation::*;
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test;
+pub mod type_annotation;
 
-type GenCallCallback = Box<
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Clone, Copy, Hash, Debug)]
-    dyn for<'ctx, 'a> Fn(
+pub struct DefinitionId(pub usize);
-            &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
+
-            Option<(Type, ValueEnum<'ctx>)>,
+type GenCallCallback = dyn for<'ctx, 'a> Fn(
-            (&FunSignature, DefinitionId),
+        &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
-            Vec<(Option<StrRef>, ValueEnum<'ctx>)>,
+        Option<(Type, ValueEnum<'ctx>)>,
-            &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
+        (&FunSignature, DefinitionId),
-        ) -> Result<Option<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>>, String>
+        Vec<(Option<StrRef>, ValueEnum<'ctx>)>,
-        + Send
+        &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
-        + Sync,
+    ) -> Result<Option<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>>, String>
->;
+    + Send
+    + Sync;
 
 pub struct GenCall {
-    fp: GenCallCallback,
+    fp: Box<GenCallCallback>,
 }
 
 impl GenCall {
     #[must_use]
-    pub fn new(fp: GenCallCallback) -> GenCall {
+    pub fn new(fp: Box<GenCallCallback>) -> GenCall {
         GenCall { fp }
     }
 
+    /// Creates a dummy instance of [`GenCall`], which invokes [`unreachable!()`] with the given
+    /// `reason`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn create_dummy(reason: String) -> GenCall {
+        Self::new(Box::new(move |_, _, _, _, _| unreachable!("{reason}")))
+    }
+
     pub fn run<'ctx>(
         &self,
         ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
@@ -75,7 +86,7 @@ impl Debug for GenCall {
 pub struct FunInstance {
     pub body: Arc<Vec<Stmt<Option<Type>>>>,
     pub calls: Arc<HashMap<CodeLocation, CallId>>,
-    pub subst: HashMap<u32, Type>,
+    pub subst: VarMap,
     pub unifier_id: usize,
 }
 
@@ -84,7 +95,7 @@ pub enum TopLevelDef {
     Class {
         /// Name for error messages and symbols.
         name: StrRef,
-        /// Object ID used for [TypeEnum].
+        /// Object ID used for [`TypeEnum`].
         object_id: DefinitionId,
         /// type variables bounded to the class.
         type_vars: Vec<Type>,
@@ -92,6 +103,10 @@ pub enum TopLevelDef {
         ///
         /// Name and type is mutable.
         fields: Vec<(StrRef, Type, bool)>,
+        /// Class Attributes.
+        ///
+        /// Name, type, value.
+        attributes: Vec<(StrRef, Type, ast::Constant)>,
         /// Class methods, pointing to the corresponding function definition.
         methods: Vec<(StrRef, Type, DefinitionId)>,
         /// Ancestor classes, including itself.
@@ -111,18 +126,18 @@ pub enum TopLevelDef {
         /// Function signature.
         signature: Type,
         /// Instantiated type variable IDs.
-        var_id: Vec<u32>,
+        var_id: Vec<TypeVarId>,
         /// Function instance to symbol mapping
         ///
         /// * Key: String representation of type variable values, sorted by variable ID in ascending
-        /// order, including type variables associated with the class.
+        ///   order, including type variables associated with the class.
         /// * Value: Function symbol name.
         instance_to_symbol: HashMap<String, String>,
         /// Function instances to annotated AST mapping
         ///
         /// * Key: String representation of type variable values, sorted by variable ID in ascending
-        /// order, including type variables associated with the class. Excluding rigid type
+        ///   order, including type variables associated with the class. Excluding rigid type
-        /// variables.
+        ///   variables.
         ///
         /// Rigid type variables that would be substituted when the function is instantiated.
         instance_to_stmt: HashMap<String, FunInstance>,
@@ -133,6 +148,25 @@ pub enum TopLevelDef {
         /// Definition location.
         loc: Option<Location>,
     },
+    Variable {
+        /// Qualified name of the global variable, should be unique globally.
+        name: String,
+
+        /// Simple name, the same as in method/function definition.
+        simple_name: StrRef,
+
+        /// Type of the global variable.
+        ty: Type,
+
+        /// The declared type of the global variable, or [`None`] if no type annotation is provided.
+        ty_decl: Option<Expr>,
+
+        /// Symbol resolver of the module defined the class.
+        resolver: Option<Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>>,
+
+        /// Definition location.
+        loc: Option<Location>,
+    },
 }
 
 pub struct TopLevelContext {