artiq: Remove all uses to gil-refs APIs

artiq: Update to pyo3 v0.22 with gil-refs feature
artiq: Update to pyo3 v0.21
2024-09-13 11:18:09 +08:00 · 2024-09-13 11:18:09 +08:00 · 2024-09-13 11:18:06 +08:00
117 changed files with 5870 additions and 11446 deletions
--- a/.pre-commit-config.yaml
+++ b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 # See https://pre-commit.com for more information
 # See https://pre-commit.com/hooks.html for more hooks
-default_stages: [pre-commit]
+default_stages: [commit]
 repos:
  - repo: local
--- a/Cargo.lock
+++ b/Cargo.lock
@ -26,9 +26,9 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "anstream"
-version = "0.6.18"
+version = "0.6.15"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8acc5369981196006228e28809f761875c0327210a891e941f4c683b3a99529b"
+checksum = "64e15c1ab1f89faffbf04a634d5e1962e9074f2741eef6d97f3c4e322426d526"
 dependencies = [
 "anstyle",
 "anstyle-parse",
@ -41,67 +41,67 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle"
-version = "1.0.10"
+version = "1.0.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "55cc3b69f167a1ef2e161439aa98aed94e6028e5f9a59be9a6ffb47aef1651f9"
+checksum = "1bec1de6f59aedf83baf9ff929c98f2ad654b97c9510f4e70cf6f661d49fd5b1"
 [[package]]
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-version = "0.2.6"
+version = "0.2.5"
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-checksum = "3b2d16507662817a6a20a9ea92df6652ee4f94f914589377d69f3b21bc5798a9"
+checksum = "eb47de1e80c2b463c735db5b217a0ddc39d612e7ac9e2e96a5aed1f57616c1cb"
 dependencies = [
 "utf8parse",
 ]
 [[package]]
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-version = "1.1.2"
+version = "1.1.1"
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+checksum = "6d36fc52c7f6c869915e99412912f22093507da8d9e942ceaf66fe4b7c14422a"
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- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.52.0",
 ]
 [[package]]
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-version = "3.0.6"
+version = "3.0.4"
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-checksum = "2109dbce0e72be3ec00bed26e6a7479ca384ad226efdd66db8fa2e3a38c83125"
+checksum = "5bf74e1b6e971609db8ca7a9ce79fd5768ab6ae46441c572e46cf596f59e57f8"
 dependencies = [
 "anstyle",
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.52.0",
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+version = "3.0.0"
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+checksum = "8824ecca2e851cec16968d54a01dd372ef8f95b244fb84b84e70128be347c3c6"
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 [[package]]
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+version = "1.3.0"
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-checksum = "ace50bade8e6234aa140d9a2f552bbee1db4d353f69b8217bc503490fc1a9f26"
+checksum = "0c4b4d0bd25bd0b74681c0ad21497610ce1b7c91b1022cd21c80c6fbdd9476b0"
 [[package]]
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+version = "0.6.0"
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-checksum = "08807e080ed7f9d5433fa9b275196cfc35414f66a0c79d864dc51a0d825231a3"
+checksum = "f0481a0e032742109b1133a095184ee93d88f3dc9e0d28a5d033dc77a073f44f"
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 [[package]]
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+checksum = "d2c54ff287cfc0a34f38a6b832ea1bd8e448a330b3e40a50859e6488bee07f22"
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 name = "bitflags"
@ -126,9 +126,9 @@ checksum = "1fd0f2584146f6f2ef48085050886acf353beff7305ebd1ae69500e27c67f64b"
 [[package]]
 name = "cc"
-version = "1.2.4"
+version = "1.1.18"
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-checksum = "9157bbaa6b165880c27a4293a474c91cdcf265cc68cc829bf10be0964a391caf"
+checksum = "b62ac837cdb5cb22e10a256099b4fc502b1dfe560cb282963a974d7abd80e476"
 dependencies = [
 "shlex",
 ]
@ -141,9 +141,9 @@ checksum = "baf1de4339761588bc0619e3cbc0120ee582ebb74b53b4efbf79117bd2da40fd"
 [[package]]
 name = "clap"
-version = "4.5.23"
+version = "4.5.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3135e7ec2ef7b10c6ed8950f0f792ed96ee093fa088608f1c76e569722700c84"
+checksum = "3e5a21b8495e732f1b3c364c9949b201ca7bae518c502c80256c96ad79eaf6ac"
 dependencies = [
 "clap_builder",
 "clap_derive",
@ -151,9 +151,9 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "clap_builder"
-version = "4.5.23"
+version = "4.5.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "30582fc632330df2bd26877bde0c1f4470d57c582bbc070376afcd04d8cb4838"
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 dependencies = [
 "anstream",
 "anstyle",
@ -163,27 +163,27 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "clap_derive"
-version = "4.5.18"
+version = "4.5.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4ac6a0c7b1a9e9a5186361f67dfa1b88213572f427fb9ab038efb2bd8c582dab"
+checksum = "501d359d5f3dcaf6ecdeee48833ae73ec6e42723a1e52419c79abf9507eec0a0"
 dependencies = [
- "heck 0.5.0",
+ "heck",
 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
- "syn 2.0.90",
+ "syn 2.0.77",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "clap_lex"
-version = "0.7.4"
+version = "0.7.2"
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-checksum = "f46ad14479a25103f283c0f10005961cf086d8dc42205bb44c46ac563475dca6"
+checksum = "1462739cb27611015575c0c11df5df7601141071f07518d56fcc1be504cbec97"
 [[package]]
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-version = "1.0.3"
+version = "1.0.2"
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-checksum = "5b63caa9aa9397e2d9480a9b13673856c78d8ac123288526c37d7839f2a86990"
+checksum = "d3fd119d74b830634cea2a0f58bbd0d54540518a14397557951e79340abc28c0"
 [[package]]
 name = "console"
@ -199,9 +199,9 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "cpufeatures"
-version = "0.2.16"
+version = "0.2.14"
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-checksum = "16b80225097f2e5ae4e7179dd2266824648f3e2f49d9134d584b76389d31c4c3"
+checksum = "608697df725056feaccfa42cffdaeeec3fccc4ffc38358ecd19b243e716a78e0"
 dependencies = [
 "libc",
 ]
@ -283,10 +283,25 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 [[package]]
-name = "dissimilar"
+name = "dirs-next"
-version = "1.0.9"
+version = "2.0.0"
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-checksum = "59f8e79d1fbf76bdfbde321e902714bf6c49df88a7dda6fc682fc2979226962d"
+checksum = "b98cf8ebf19c3d1b223e151f99a4f9f0690dca41414773390fc824184ac833e1"
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 "redox_users",
 "winapi",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "either"
@ -317,19 +332,19 @@ checksum = "5443807d6dff69373d433ab9ef5378ad8df50ca6298caf15de6e52e24aaf54d5"
 [[package]]
 name = "errno"
-version = "0.3.10"
+version = "0.3.9"
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-checksum = "33d852cb9b869c2a9b3df2f71a3074817f01e1844f839a144f5fcef059a4eb5d"
+checksum = "534c5cf6194dfab3db3242765c03bbe257cf92f22b38f6bc0c58d59108a820ba"
 dependencies = [
 "libc",
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.52.0",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "fastrand"
-version = "2.3.0"
+version = "2.1.1"
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-checksum = "37909eebbb50d72f9059c3b6d82c0463f2ff062c9e95845c43a6c9c0355411be"
+checksum = "e8c02a5121d4ea3eb16a80748c74f5549a5665e4c21333c6098f283870fbdea6"
 [[package]]
 name = "fixedbitset"
@ -376,12 +391,6 @@ dependencies = [
 "wasi",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "glob"
 version = "0.3.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "d2fabcfbdc87f4758337ca535fb41a6d701b65693ce38287d856d1674551ec9b"
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 name = "hashbrown"
 version = "0.12.3"
@ -397,33 +406,12 @@ dependencies = [
 "ahash",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "hashbrown"
 version = "0.15.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "bf151400ff0baff5465007dd2f3e717f3fe502074ca563069ce3a6629d07b289"
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 ]
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 name = "indexmap"
 version = "1.9.3"
@ -436,12 +424,12 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "indexmap"
-version = "2.7.0"
+version = "2.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "62f822373a4fe84d4bb149bf54e584a7f4abec90e072ed49cda0edea5b95471f"
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 dependencies = [
 "equivalent",
- "hashbrown 0.15.2",
+ "hashbrown 0.14.5",
 ]
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@ -472,7 +460,7 @@ checksum = "9dd28cfd4cfba665d47d31c08a6ba637eed16770abca2eccbbc3ca831fef1e44"
 dependencies = [
 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
- "syn 2.0.90",
+ "syn 2.0.77",
 ]
 [[package]]
@ -506,9 +494,9 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "itoa"
-version = "1.0.14"
+version = "1.0.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d75a2a4b1b190afb6f5425f10f6a8f959d2ea0b9c2b1d79553551850539e4674"
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 [[package]]
 name = "keccak"
@ -521,9 +509,9 @@ dependencies = [
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-version = "0.22.0"
+version = "0.21.0"
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 dependencies = [
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 "bit-set",
@ -543,12 +531,11 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "lalrpop-util"
-version = "0.22.0"
+version = "0.21.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
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 dependencies = [
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 "rustversion",
 ]
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@ -559,20 +546,30 @@ checksum = "bbd2bcb4c963f2ddae06a2efc7e9f3591312473c50c6685e1f298068316e66fe"
 [[package]]
 name = "libc"
-version = "0.2.168"
+version = "0.2.158"
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-checksum = "5aaeb2981e0606ca11d79718f8bb01164f1d6ed75080182d3abf017e6d244b6d"
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 [[package]]
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 "libc",
 ]
 [[package]]
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@ -646,6 +643,7 @@ name = "nac3ast"
 version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
 "fxhash",
 "lazy_static",
 "parking_lot",
 "string-interner",
 ]
@ -655,12 +653,11 @@ name = "nac3core"
 version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
 "crossbeam",
- "indexmap 2.7.0",
+ "indexmap 2.5.0",
 "indoc",
 "inkwell",
 "insta",
 "itertools",
 "nac3core_derive",
 "nac3parser",
 "parking_lot",
 "rayon",
@ -670,18 +667,6 @@ dependencies = [
 "test-case",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "nac3core_derive"
 version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
 "nac3core",
 "proc-macro-error",
 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
 "syn 2.0.90",
 "trybuild",
 ]
 [[package]]
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@ -722,9 +707,9 @@ checksum = "650eef8c711430f1a879fdd01d4745a7deea475becfb90269c06775983bbf086"
 [[package]]
 name = "once_cell"
-version = "1.20.2"
+version = "1.19.0"
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+checksum = "3fdb12b2476b595f9358c5161aa467c2438859caa136dec86c26fdd2efe17b92"
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@ -756,7 +741,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
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 dependencies = [
 "fixedbitset",
- "indexmap 2.7.0",
+ "indexmap 2.5.0",
 ]
 [[package]]
@ -799,7 +784,7 @@ dependencies = [
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 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
- "syn 2.0.90",
+ "syn 2.0.77",
 ]
 [[package]]
@ -828,9 +813,9 @@ checksum = "5be167a7af36ee22fe3115051bc51f6e6c7054c9348e28deb4f49bd6f705a315"
 [[package]]
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@ -847,50 +832,26 @@ version = "0.1.1"
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 "quote",
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 [[package]]
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 ]
 [[package]]
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+version = "0.22.2"
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 dependencies = [
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 "indoc",
 "libc",
 "memoffset",
- "parking_lot",
+ "once_cell",
 "portable-atomic",
 "pyo3-build-config",
 "pyo3-ffi",
@ -900,9 +861,9 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "pyo3-build-config"
-version = "0.21.2"
+version = "0.22.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7883df5835fafdad87c0d888b266c8ec0f4c9ca48a5bed6bbb592e8dedee1b50"
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 dependencies = [
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 "target-lexicon",
@ -910,9 +871,9 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "pyo3-ffi"
-version = "0.21.2"
+version = "0.22.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "01be5843dc60b916ab4dad1dca6d20b9b4e6ddc8e15f50c47fe6d85f1fb97403"
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 dependencies = [
 "libc",
 "pyo3-build-config",
@ -920,27 +881,27 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "pyo3-macros"
-version = "0.21.2"
+version = "0.22.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "77b34069fc0682e11b31dbd10321cbf94808394c56fd996796ce45217dfac53c"
+checksum = "eb57983022ad41f9e683a599f2fd13c3664d7063a3ac5714cae4b7bee7d3f206"
 dependencies = [
 "proc-macro2",
 "pyo3-macros-backend",
 "quote",
- "syn 2.0.90",
+ "syn 2.0.77",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "pyo3-macros-backend"
-version = "0.21.2"
+version = "0.22.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "08260721f32db5e1a5beae69a55553f56b99bd0e1c3e6e0a5e8851a9d0f5a85c"
+checksum = "ec480c0c51ddec81019531705acac51bcdbeae563557c982aa8263bb96880372"
 dependencies = [
- "heck 0.4.1",
+ "heck",
 "proc-macro2",
 "pyo3-build-config",
 "quote",
- "syn 2.0.90",
+ "syn 2.0.77",
 ]
 [[package]]
@ -1004,18 +965,29 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "redox_syscall"
-version = "0.5.8"
+version = "0.5.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "03a862b389f93e68874fbf580b9de08dd02facb9a788ebadaf4a3fd33cf58834"
+checksum = "0884ad60e090bf1345b93da0a5de8923c93884cd03f40dfcfddd3b4bee661853"
 dependencies = [
 "bitflags",
 ]
 [[package]]
-name = "regex"
+name = "redox_users"
-version = "1.11.1"
+version = "0.4.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b544ef1b4eac5dc2db33ea63606ae9ffcfac26c1416a2806ae0bf5f56b201191"
+checksum = "ba009ff324d1fc1b900bd1fdb31564febe58a8ccc8a6fdbb93b543d33b13ca43"
 dependencies = [
 "getrandom",
 "libredox",
 "thiserror",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "regex"
 version = "1.10.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "4219d74c6b67a3654a9fbebc4b419e22126d13d2f3c4a07ee0cb61ff79a79619"
 dependencies = [
 "aho-corasick",
 "memchr",
@ -1025,9 +997,9 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "regex-automata"
-version = "0.4.9"
+version = "0.4.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "809e8dc61f6de73b46c85f4c96486310fe304c434cfa43669d7b40f711150908"
+checksum = "38caf58cc5ef2fed281f89292ef23f6365465ed9a41b7a7754eb4e26496c92df"
 dependencies = [
 "aho-corasick",
 "memchr",
@ -1036,9 +1008,9 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "regex-syntax"
-version = "0.8.5"
+version = "0.8.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2b15c43186be67a4fd63bee50d0303afffcef381492ebe2c5d87f324e1b8815c"
+checksum = "7a66a03ae7c801facd77a29370b4faec201768915ac14a721ba36f20bc9c209b"
 [[package]]
 name = "runkernel"
@ -1049,22 +1021,22 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "rustix"
-version = "0.38.42"
+version = "0.38.37"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f93dc38ecbab2eb790ff964bb77fa94faf256fd3e73285fd7ba0903b76bedb85"
+checksum = "8acb788b847c24f28525660c4d7758620a7210875711f79e7f663cc152726811"
 dependencies = [
 "bitflags",
 "errno",
 "libc",
 "linux-raw-sys",
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.52.0",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "rustversion"
-version = "1.0.18"
+version = "1.0.17"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0e819f2bc632f285be6d7cd36e25940d45b2391dd6d9b939e79de557f7014248"
+checksum = "955d28af4278de8121b7ebeb796b6a45735dc01436d898801014aced2773a3d6"
 [[package]]
 name = "ryu"
@ -1089,35 +1061,35 @@ checksum = "94143f37725109f92c262ed2cf5e59bce7498c01bcc1502d7b9afe439a4e9f49"
 [[package]]
 name = "semver"
-version = "1.0.24"
+version = "1.0.23"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3cb6eb87a131f756572d7fb904f6e7b68633f09cca868c5df1c4b8d1a694bbba"
+checksum = "61697e0a1c7e512e84a621326239844a24d8207b4669b41bc18b32ea5cbf988b"
 [[package]]
 name = "serde"
-version = "1.0.216"
+version = "1.0.210"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0b9781016e935a97e8beecf0c933758c97a5520d32930e460142b4cd80c6338e"
+checksum = "c8e3592472072e6e22e0a54d5904d9febf8508f65fb8552499a1abc7d1078c3a"
 dependencies = [
 "serde_derive",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_derive"
-version = "1.0.216"
+version = "1.0.210"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "46f859dbbf73865c6627ed570e78961cd3ac92407a2d117204c49232485da55e"
+checksum = "243902eda00fad750862fc144cea25caca5e20d615af0a81bee94ca738f1df1f"
 dependencies = [
 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
- "syn 2.0.90",
+ "syn 2.0.77",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_json"
-version = "1.0.133"
+version = "1.0.128"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c7fceb2473b9166b2294ef05efcb65a3db80803f0b03ef86a5fc88a2b85ee377"
+checksum = "6ff5456707a1de34e7e37f2a6fd3d3f808c318259cbd01ab6377795054b483d8"
 dependencies = [
 "itoa",
 "memchr",
@ -1125,15 +1097,6 @@ dependencies = [
 "serde",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_spanned"
 version = "0.6.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "87607cb1398ed59d48732e575a4c28a7a8ebf2454b964fe3f224f2afc07909e1"
 dependencies = [
 "serde",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_yaml"
 version = "0.8.26"
@ -1222,11 +1185,11 @@ version = "0.26.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "4c6bee85a5a24955dc440386795aa378cd9cf82acd5f764469152d2270e581be"
 dependencies = [
- "heck 0.5.0",
+ "heck",
 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
 "rustversion",
- "syn 2.0.90",
+ "syn 2.0.77",
 ]
 [[package]]
@ -1242,9 +1205,9 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "syn"
-version = "2.0.90"
+version = "2.0.77"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "919d3b74a5dd0ccd15aeb8f93e7006bd9e14c295087c9896a110f490752bcf31"
+checksum = "9f35bcdf61fd8e7be6caf75f429fdca8beb3ed76584befb503b1569faee373ed"
 dependencies = [
 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
@ -1257,17 +1220,11 @@ version = "0.12.16"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "61c41af27dd6d1e27b1b16b489db798443478cef1f06a660c96db617ba5de3b1"
 [[package]]
 name = "target-triple"
 version = "0.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "42a4d50cdb458045afc8131fd91b64904da29548bcb63c7236e0844936c13078"
 [[package]]
 name = "tempfile"
-version = "3.14.0"
+version = "3.12.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "28cce251fcbc87fac86a866eeb0d6c2d536fc16d06f184bb61aeae11aa4cee0c"
+checksum = "04cbcdd0c794ebb0d4cf35e88edd2f7d2c4c3e9a5a6dab322839b321c6a87a64"
 dependencies = [
 "cfg-if",
 "fastrand",
@ -1278,21 +1235,13 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "term"
-version = "1.0.0"
+version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4df4175de05129f31b80458c6df371a15e7fc3fd367272e6bf938e5c351c7ea0"
+checksum = "c59df8ac95d96ff9bede18eb7300b0fda5e5d8d90960e76f8e14ae765eedbf1f"
 dependencies = [
- "home",
+ "dirs-next",
- "windows-sys 0.52.0",
+ "rustversion",
-]
+ "winapi",
 [[package]]
 name = "termcolor"
 version = "1.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "06794f8f6c5c898b3275aebefa6b8a1cb24cd2c6c79397ab15774837a0bc5755"
 dependencies = [
 "winapi-util",
 ]
 [[package]]
@ -1310,72 +1259,22 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "thiserror"
-version = "1.0.69"
+version = "1.0.63"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b6aaf5339b578ea85b50e080feb250a3e8ae8cfcdff9a461c9ec2904bc923f52"
+checksum = "c0342370b38b6a11b6cc11d6a805569958d54cfa061a29969c3b5ce2ea405724"
 dependencies = [
 "thiserror-impl",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "thiserror-impl"
-version = "1.0.69"
+version = "1.0.63"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4fee6c4efc90059e10f81e6d42c60a18f76588c3d74cb83a0b242a2b6c7504c1"
+checksum = "a4558b58466b9ad7ca0f102865eccc95938dca1a74a856f2b57b6629050da261"
 dependencies = [
 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
- "syn 2.0.90",
+ "syn 2.0.77",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "toml"
 version = "0.8.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "a1ed1f98e3fdc28d6d910e6737ae6ab1a93bf1985935a1193e68f93eeb68d24e"
 dependencies = [
 "serde",
 "serde_spanned",
 "toml_datetime",
 "toml_edit",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "toml_datetime"
 version = "0.6.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "0dd7358ecb8fc2f8d014bf86f6f638ce72ba252a2c3a2572f2a795f1d23efb41"
 dependencies = [
 "serde",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "toml_edit"
 version = "0.22.22"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "4ae48d6208a266e853d946088ed816055e556cc6028c5e8e2b84d9fa5dd7c7f5"
 dependencies = [
 "indexmap 2.7.0",
 "serde",
 "serde_spanned",
 "toml_datetime",
 "winnow",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "trybuild"
 version = "1.0.101"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "8dcd332a5496c026f1e14b7f3d2b7bd98e509660c04239c58b0ba38a12daded4"
 dependencies = [
 "dissimilar",
 "glob",
 "serde",
 "serde_derive",
 "serde_json",
 "target-triple",
 "termcolor",
 "toml",
 ]
 [[package]]
@ -1438,21 +1337,21 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-ident"
-version = "1.0.14"
+version = "1.0.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "adb9e6ca4f869e1180728b7950e35922a7fc6397f7b641499e8f3ef06e50dc83"
+checksum = "e91b56cd4cadaeb79bbf1a5645f6b4f8dc5bde8834ad5894a8db35fda9efa1fe"
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-width"
-version = "0.1.14"
+version = "0.1.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7dd6e30e90baa6f72411720665d41d89b9a3d039dc45b8faea1ddd07f617f6af"
+checksum = "0336d538f7abc86d282a4189614dfaa90810dfc2c6f6427eaf88e16311dd225d"
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-xid"
-version = "0.2.6"
+version = "0.2.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ebc1c04c71510c7f702b52b7c350734c9ff1295c464a03335b00bb84fc54f853"
+checksum = "229730647fbc343e3a80e463c1db7f78f3855d3f3739bee0dda773c9a037c90a"
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode_names2"
@ -1510,6 +1409,22 @@ version = "0.11.0+wasi-snapshot-preview1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9c8d87e72b64a3b4db28d11ce29237c246188f4f51057d65a7eab63b7987e423"
 [[package]]
 name = "winapi"
 version = "0.3.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "5c839a674fcd7a98952e593242ea400abe93992746761e38641405d28b00f419"
 dependencies = [
 "winapi-i686-pc-windows-gnu",
 "winapi-x86_64-pc-windows-gnu",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "winapi-i686-pc-windows-gnu"
 version = "0.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "ac3b87c63620426dd9b991e5ce0329eff545bccbbb34f3be09ff6fb6ab51b7b6"
 [[package]]
 name = "winapi-util"
 version = "0.1.9"
@ -1519,6 +1434,12 @@ dependencies = [
 "windows-sys 0.59.0",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "winapi-x86_64-pc-windows-gnu"
 version = "0.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "712e227841d057c1ee1cd2fb22fa7e5a5461ae8e48fa2ca79ec42cfc1931183f"
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-sys"
 version = "0.52.0"
@ -1601,15 +1522,6 @@ version = "0.52.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "589f6da84c646204747d1270a2a5661ea66ed1cced2631d546fdfb155959f9ec"
 [[package]]
 name = "winnow"
 version = "0.6.20"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "36c1fec1a2bb5866f07c25f68c26e565c4c200aebb96d7e55710c19d3e8ac49b"
 dependencies = [
 "memchr",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "yaml-rust"
 version = "0.4.5"
@ -1637,5 +1549,5 @@ checksum = "fa4f8080344d4671fb4e831a13ad1e68092748387dfc4f55e356242fae12ce3e"
 dependencies = [
 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
- "syn 2.0.90",
+ "syn 2.0.77",
 ]
--- a/Cargo.toml
+++ b/Cargo.toml
@ -4,7 +4,6 @@ members = [
  "nac3ast",
  "nac3parser",
  "nac3core",
  "nac3core/nac3core_derive",
  "nac3standalone",
  "nac3artiq",
  "runkernel",
--- a/flake.lock
+++ b/flake.lock
@ -2,11 +2,11 @@
  "nodes": {
    "nixpkgs": {
      "locked": {
-        "lastModified": 1733940404,
+        "lastModified": 1725432240,
-        "narHash": "sha256-Pj39hSoUA86ZePPF/UXiYHHM7hMIkios8TYG29kQT4g=",
+        "narHash": "sha256-+yj+xgsfZaErbfYM3T+QvEE2hU7UuE+Jf0fJCJ8uPS0=",
        "owner": "NixOS",
        "repo": "nixpkgs",
-        "rev": "5d67ea6b4b63378b9c13be21e2ec9d1afc921713",
+        "rev": "ad416d066ca1222956472ab7d0555a6946746a80",
        "type": "github"
      },
      "original": {
--- a/flake.nix
+++ b/flake.nix
@ -107,18 +107,18 @@
            (pkgs.fetchFromGitHub {
              owner = "m-labs";
              repo = "sipyco";
-              rev = "094a6cd63ffa980ef63698920170e50dc9ba77fd";
+              rev = "939f84f9b5eef7efbf7423c735d1834783b6140e";
-              sha256 = "sha256-PPnAyDedUQ7Og/Cby9x5OT9wMkNGTP8GS53V6N/dk4w=";
+              sha256 = "sha256-15Nun4EY35j+6SPZkjzZtyH/ncxLS60KuGJjFh5kSTc=";
            })
            (pkgs.fetchFromGitHub {
              owner = "m-labs";
              repo = "artiq";
-              rev = "28c9de3e251daa89a8c9fd79d5ab64a3ec03bac6";
+              rev = "923ca3377d42c815f979983134ec549dc39d3ca0";
-              sha256 = "sha256-vAvpbHc5B+1wtG8zqN7j9dQE1ON+i22v+uqA+tw6Gak=";
+              sha256 = "sha256-oJoEeNEeNFSUyh6jXG8Tzp6qHVikeHS0CzfE+mODPgw=";
            })
          ];
          buildInputs = [
-            (python3-mimalloc.withPackages(ps: [ ps.numpy ps.scipy ps.jsonschema ps.lmdb ps.platformdirs nac3artiq-instrumented ]))
+            (python3-mimalloc.withPackages(ps: [ ps.numpy ps.scipy ps.jsonschema ps.lmdb nac3artiq-instrumented ]))
            pkgs.llvmPackages_14.llvm.out
          ];
          phases = [ "buildPhase" "installPhase" ];
--- a/nac3artiq/Cargo.toml
+++ b/nac3artiq/Cargo.toml
@ -10,9 +10,9 @@ crate-type = ["cdylib"]
 [dependencies]
 itertools = "0.13"
-pyo3 = { version = "0.21", features = ["extension-module", "gil-refs"] }
+pyo3 = { version = "0.22", features = ["extension-module", "py-clone"] }
 parking_lot = "0.12"
-tempfile = "3.13"
+tempfile = "3.10"
 nac3core = { path = "../nac3core" }
 nac3ld = { path = "../nac3ld" }
--- a/nac3artiq/demo/embedding_map.py
+++ b/nac3artiq/demo/embedding_map.py
@ -7,6 +7,33 @@ class EmbeddingMap:
        self.function_map = {}
        self.attributes_writeback = []
        # preallocate exception names
        self.preallocate_runtime_exception_names(["RuntimeError",
                                          "RTIOUnderflow",
                                          "RTIOOverflow",
                                          "RTIODestinationUnreachable",
                                          "DMAError",
                                          "I2CError",
                                          "CacheError",
                                          "SPIError",
                                          "0:ZeroDivisionError",
                                          "0:IndexError",
                                          "0:ValueError",
                                          "0:RuntimeError",
                                          "0:AssertionError",
                                          "0:KeyError",
                                          "0:NotImplementedError",
                                          "0:OverflowError",
                                          "0:IOError",
                                          "0:UnwrapNoneError"])
    def preallocate_runtime_exception_names(self, names):
        for i, name in enumerate(names):
            if ":" not in name:
                name = "0:artiq.coredevice.exceptions." + name
            exn_id = self.store_str(name)
            assert exn_id == i
    def store_function(self, key, fun):
        self.function_map[key] = fun
        return key
--- a/nac3artiq/demo/min_artiq.py
+++ b/nac3artiq/demo/min_artiq.py
@ -112,15 +112,10 @@ def extern(function):
    register_function(function)
    return function
-
+def rpc(function):
-def rpc(arg=None, flags={}):
+    """Decorates a function declaration defined by the core device runtime."""
-    """Decorates a function or method to be executed on the host interpreter."""
+    register_function(function)
-    if arg is None:
+    return function
        def inner_decorator(function):
            return rpc(function, flags)
        return inner_decorator
    register_function(arg)
    return arg
 def kernel(function_or_method):
    """Decorates a function or method to be executed on the core device."""
@ -206,7 +201,7 @@ class Core:
        embedding = EmbeddingMap()
        if allow_registration:
-            compiler.analyze(registered_functions, registered_classes, set())
+            compiler.analyze(registered_functions, registered_classes)
            allow_registration = False
        if hasattr(method, "__self__"):
--- a/nac3artiq/src/codegen.rs
+++ b/nac3artiq/src/codegen.rs
@ -1,3 +1,39 @@
 use nac3core::{
    codegen::{
        classes::{
            ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue, ListValue, NDArrayType,
            NDArrayValue, ProxyType, ProxyValue, RangeValue, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
        },
        expr::{destructure_range, gen_call},
        irrt::call_ndarray_calc_size,
        llvm_intrinsics::{call_int_smax, call_memcpy_generic, call_stackrestore, call_stacksave},
        stmt::{gen_block, gen_for_callback_incrementing, gen_if_callback, gen_with},
        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
    },
    symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys, DefinitionId, GenCall},
    typecheck::typedef::{iter_type_vars, FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, VarMap},
 };
 use nac3core::nac3parser::ast::{Expr, ExprKind, Located, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef};
 use nac3core::inkwell::{
    context::Context,
    module::Linkage,
    types::{BasicType, IntType},
    values::{BasicValueEnum, PointerValue, StructValue},
    AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
 };
 use pyo3::{
    prelude::*,
    types::{PyDict, PyList},
 };
 use crate::{symbol_resolver::InnerResolver, timeline::TimeFns};
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use nac3core::inkwell::values::IntValue;
 use std::{
    collections::{hash_map::DefaultHasher, HashMap},
    hash::{Hash, Hasher},
@ -6,43 +42,6 @@ use std::{
    sync::Arc,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use pyo3::{
    types::{PyDict, PyList},
    PyObject, PyResult, Python,
 };
 use super::{symbol_resolver::InnerResolver, timeline::TimeFns};
 use nac3core::{
    codegen::{
        expr::{destructure_range, gen_call},
        llvm_intrinsics::{call_int_smax, call_memcpy, call_stackrestore, call_stacksave},
        stmt::{gen_block, gen_for_callback_incrementing, gen_if_callback, gen_with},
        type_aligned_alloca,
        types::ndarray::NDArrayType,
        values::{
            ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue, ListValue, ProxyValue, RangeValue,
            UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
        },
        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
    },
    inkwell::{
        context::Context,
        module::Linkage,
        types::{BasicType, IntType},
        values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue},
        AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
    },
    nac3parser::ast::{Expr, ExprKind, Located, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef},
    symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
    toplevel::{
        helper::{extract_ndims, PrimDef},
        numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys,
        DefinitionId, GenCall,
    },
    typecheck::typedef::{iter_type_vars, FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, VarMap},
 };
 /// The parallelism mode within a block.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
 enum ParallelMode {
@ -461,49 +460,52 @@ fn format_rpc_arg<'ctx>(
            let llvm_i1 = ctx.ctx.bool_type();
            let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
-            let (elem_ty, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, arg_ty);
+            let (elem_ty, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, arg_ty);
-            let ndims = extract_ndims(&ctx.unifier, ndims);
+            let llvm_elem_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, elem_ty);
-            let dtype = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, elem_ty);
+            let llvm_arg_ty = NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, llvm_elem_ty);
-            let ndarray = NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, dtype, Some(ndims))
+            let llvm_arg = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(arg.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
                .map_value(arg.into_pointer_value(), None);
-            let ndims = llvm_usize.const_int(ndims, false);
+            let llvm_usize_sizeof = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(llvm_arg_ty.size_type().size_of(), llvm_usize, "")
                .unwrap();
            let llvm_pdata_sizeof = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(
                    llvm_elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).size_of(),
                    llvm_usize,
                    "",
                )
                .unwrap();
-            // `ndarray.data` is possibly not contiguous, and we need it to be contiguous for
+            let dims_buf_sz =
-            // the reader.
+                ctx.builder.build_int_mul(llvm_arg.load_ndims(ctx), llvm_usize_sizeof, "").unwrap();
            // Turning it into a ContiguousNDArray to get a `data` that is contiguous.
            let carray = ndarray.make_contiguous_ndarray(generator, ctx);
-            let sizeof_usize = llvm_usize.size_of();
+            let buffer_size =
-            let sizeof_usize =
+                ctx.builder.build_int_add(dims_buf_sz, llvm_pdata_sizeof, "").unwrap();
                ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(sizeof_usize, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
-            let sizeof_pdata = dtype.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).size_of();
+            let buffer = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_i8, buffer_size, "rpc.arg").unwrap();
-            let sizeof_pdata =
+            let buffer = ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(buffer, buffer_size, Some("rpc.arg"));
                ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(sizeof_pdata, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
-            let sizeof_buf_shape = ctx.builder.build_int_mul(sizeof_usize, ndims, "").unwrap();
+            call_memcpy_generic(
-            let sizeof_buf = ctx.builder.build_int_add(sizeof_buf_shape, sizeof_pdata, "").unwrap();
+                ctx,
                buffer.base_ptr(ctx, generator),
                llvm_arg.ptr_to_data(ctx),
                llvm_pdata_sizeof,
                llvm_i1.const_zero(),
            );
-            // buf = { data: void*, shape: [size_t; ndims]; }
+            let pbuffer_dims_begin =
-            let buf = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_i8, sizeof_buf, "rpc.arg").unwrap();
+                unsafe { buffer.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, &llvm_pdata_sizeof, None) };
-            let buf = ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(buf, sizeof_buf, Some("rpc.arg"));
+            call_memcpy_generic(
-            let buf_data = buf.base_ptr(ctx, generator);
+                ctx,
-            let buf_shape =
+                pbuffer_dims_begin,
-                unsafe { buf.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, &sizeof_pdata, None) };
+                llvm_arg.dim_sizes().base_ptr(ctx, generator),
                dims_buf_sz,
                llvm_i1.const_zero(),
            );
-            // Write to `buf->data`
+            buffer.base_ptr(ctx, generator)
            let carray_data = carray.load_data(ctx);
            let carray_data = ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(carray_data, llvm_pi8, "").unwrap();
            call_memcpy(ctx, buf_data, carray_data, sizeof_pdata, llvm_i1.const_zero());
            // Write to `buf->shape`
            let carray_shape = ndarray.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
            let carray_shape_i8 =
                ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(carray_shape, llvm_pi8, "").unwrap();
            call_memcpy(ctx, buf_shape, carray_shape_i8, sizeof_buf_shape, llvm_i1.const_zero());
            buf.base_ptr(ctx, generator)
        }
        _ => {
@ -544,8 +546,6 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
    let llvm_i8_8 = ctx.ctx.struct_type(&[llvm_i8.array_type(8).into()], false);
    let llvm_pi8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let rpc_recv = ctx.module.get_function("rpc_recv").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        ctx.module.add_function("rpc_recv", llvm_i32.fn_type(&[llvm_pi8.into()], false), None)
@ -566,7 +566,8 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
    let result = match &*ctx.unifier.get_ty_immutable(ret_ty) {
        TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
-            let num_0 = llvm_usize.const_zero();
+            let llvm_i1 = ctx.ctx.bool_type();
            let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
            // Round `val` up to its modulo `power_of_two`
            let round_up = |ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
@ -592,49 +593,79 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
                    .unwrap()
            };
            // Setup types
            let (elem_ty, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ret_ty);
            let llvm_elem_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, elem_ty);
            let llvm_ret_ty = NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, llvm_elem_ty);
            // Allocate the resulting ndarray
            // A condition after format_rpc_ret ensures this will not be popped this off.
-            let (dtype, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ret_ty);
+            let ndarray = llvm_ret_ty.new_value(generator, ctx, Some("rpc.result"));
            let dtype_llvm = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, dtype);
            let ndims = extract_ndims(&ctx.unifier, ndims);
            let ndarray = NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, dtype_llvm, Some(ndims))
                .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, None);
-            // NOTE: Current content of `ndarray`:
+            // Setup ndims
-            //   - * `data` - **NOT YET** allocated.
+            let ndims =
-            //   - * `itemsize` - initialized to be size_of(dtype).
+                if let TypeEnum::TLiteral { values, .. } = &*ctx.unifier.get_ty_immutable(ndims) {
-            //   - * `ndims` - initialized.
+                    assert_eq!(values.len(), 1);
            //   - * `shape` - allocated; has uninitialized values.
            //   - * `strides` - allocated; has uninitialized values.
-            let itemsize = ndarray.load_itemsize(ctx); // Same as doing a `ctx.get_llvm_type` on `dtype` and get its `size_of()`.
+                    u64::try_from(values[0].clone()).unwrap()
                } else {
                    unreachable!();
                };
            // Set `ndarray.ndims`
            ndarray.store_ndims(ctx, generator, llvm_usize.const_int(ndims, false));
            // Allocate `ndarray.shape` [size_t; ndims]
            ndarray.create_dim_sizes(ctx, llvm_usize, ndarray.load_ndims(ctx));
            /*
                ndarray now:
                  - .ndims: initialized
                  - .shape: allocated but uninitialized .shape
                  - .data: uninitialized
            */
            let llvm_usize_sizeof = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(llvm_usize.size_of(), llvm_usize, "")
                .unwrap();
            let llvm_pdata_sizeof = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(
                    llvm_elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).size_of(),
                    llvm_usize,
                    "",
                )
                .unwrap();
            let llvm_elem_sizeof = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(llvm_elem_ty.size_of().unwrap(), llvm_usize, "")
                .unwrap();
            // Allocates a buffer for the initial RPC'ed object, which is guaranteed to be
            // (4 + 4 * ndims) bytes with 8-byte alignment
-            let sizeof_usize = llvm_usize.size_of();
+            let sizeof_dims =
-            let sizeof_usize =
+                ctx.builder.build_int_mul(ndarray.load_ndims(ctx), llvm_usize_sizeof, "").unwrap();
                ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(sizeof_usize, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
            let sizeof_ptr = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).size_of();
            let sizeof_ptr =
                ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(sizeof_ptr, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
            let sizeof_shape =
                ctx.builder.build_int_mul(ndarray.load_ndims(ctx), sizeof_usize, "").unwrap();
            // Size of the buffer for the initial `rpc_recv()`.
            let unaligned_buffer_size =
-                ctx.builder.build_int_add(sizeof_ptr, sizeof_shape, "").unwrap();
+                ctx.builder.build_int_add(sizeof_dims, llvm_pdata_sizeof, "").unwrap();
            let buffer_size = round_up(ctx, unaligned_buffer_size, llvm_usize.const_int(8, false));
            let stackptr = call_stacksave(ctx, None);
-            let buffer = type_aligned_alloca(
+            // Just to be absolutely sure, alloca in [i8 x 8] slices to force 8-byte alignment
-                generator,
+            let buffer = ctx
-                ctx,
+                .builder
-                llvm_i8_8,
+                .build_array_alloca(
-                unaligned_buffer_size,
+                    llvm_i8_8,
-                Some("rpc.buffer"),
+                    ctx.builder
-            );
+                        .build_int_unsigned_div(buffer_size, llvm_usize.const_int(8, false), "")
-            let buffer = ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(buffer, unaligned_buffer_size, None);
+                        .unwrap(),
                    "rpc.buffer",
                )
                .unwrap();
            let buffer = ctx
                .builder
                .build_bit_cast(buffer, llvm_pi8, "")
                .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
                .unwrap();
            let buffer = ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(buffer, buffer_size, None);
            // The first call to `rpc_recv` reads the top-level ndarray object: [pdata, shape]
            //
@ -642,7 +673,7 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
            let ndarray_nbytes = ctx
                .build_call_or_invoke(
                    rpc_recv,
-                    &[buffer.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into()], // Reads [usize; ndims]
+                    &[buffer.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into()], // Reads [usize; ndims]. NOTE: We are allocated [size_t; ndims].
                    "rpc.size.next",
                )
                .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
@ -650,14 +681,16 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
            // debug_assert(ndarray_nbytes > 0)
            if ctx.registry.llvm_options.opt_level == OptimizationLevel::None {
                let cmp = ctx
                    .builder
                    .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::UGT, ndarray_nbytes, num_0, "")
                    .unwrap();
                ctx.make_assert(
                    generator,
-                    cmp,
+                    ctx.builder
                        .build_int_compare(
                            IntPredicate::UGT,
                            ndarray_nbytes,
                            ndarray_nbytes.get_type().const_zero(),
                            "",
                        )
                        .unwrap(),
                    "0:AssertionError",
                    "Unexpected RPC termination for ndarray - Expected data buffer next",
                    [None, None, None],
@ -666,50 +699,49 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
            }
            // Copy shape from the buffer to `ndarray.shape`.
-            // We need to skip the first `sizeof(uint8_t*)` bytes to skip the `pdata` in `[pdata, shape]`.
+            let pbuffer_dims =
-            let pbuffer_shape =
+                unsafe { buffer.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, &llvm_pdata_sizeof, None) };
                unsafe { buffer.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, &sizeof_ptr, None) };
            let pbuffer_shape =
                ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(pbuffer_shape, llvm_pusize, "").unwrap();
            // Copy shape from buffer to `ndarray.shape`
            ndarray.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, pbuffer_shape);
            call_memcpy_generic(
                ctx,
                ndarray.dim_sizes().base_ptr(ctx, generator),
                pbuffer_dims,
                sizeof_dims,
                llvm_i1.const_zero(),
            );
            // Restore stack from before allocation of buffer
            call_stackrestore(ctx, stackptr);
            // Allocate `ndarray.data`.
            // `ndarray.shape` must be initialized beforehand in this implementation
            //   (for ndarray.create_data() to know how many elements to allocate)
-            unsafe { ndarray.create_data(generator, ctx) }; // NOTE: the strides of `ndarray` has also been set to contiguous in `create_data`.
+            let num_elements =
                call_ndarray_calc_size(generator, ctx, &ndarray.dim_sizes(), (None, None));
            // debug_assert(nelems * sizeof(T) >= ndarray_nbytes)
            if ctx.registry.llvm_options.opt_level == OptimizationLevel::None {
-                let num_elements = ndarray.size(generator, ctx);
+                let sizeof_data =
-
+                    ctx.builder.build_int_mul(num_elements, llvm_elem_sizeof, "").unwrap();
                let expected_ndarray_nbytes =
                    ctx.builder.build_int_mul(num_elements, itemsize, "").unwrap();
                let cmp = ctx
                    .builder
                    .build_int_compare(
                        IntPredicate::UGE,
                        expected_ndarray_nbytes,
                        ndarray_nbytes,
                        "",
                    )
                    .unwrap();
                ctx.make_assert(
                    generator,
-                    cmp,
+                    ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::UGE,
                        sizeof_data,
                        ndarray_nbytes,
                        "",
                    ).unwrap(),
                    "0:AssertionError",
                    "Unexpected allocation size request for ndarray data - Expected up to {0} bytes, got {1} bytes",
-                    [Some(expected_ndarray_nbytes), Some(ndarray_nbytes), None],
+                    [Some(sizeof_data), Some(ndarray_nbytes), None],
                    ctx.current_loc,
                );
            }
            ndarray.create_data(ctx, llvm_elem_ty, num_elements);
            let ndarray_data = ndarray.data().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
            let ndarray_data_i8 =
                ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(ndarray_data, llvm_pi8, "").unwrap();
            // NOTE: Currently on `prehead_bb`
            ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(head_bb).unwrap();
@ -718,7 +750,7 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
            ctx.builder.position_at_end(head_bb);
            let phi = ctx.builder.build_phi(llvm_pi8, "rpc.ptr").unwrap();
-            phi.add_incoming(&[(&ndarray_data, prehead_bb)]);
+            phi.add_incoming(&[(&ndarray_data_i8, prehead_bb)]);
            let alloc_size = ctx
                .build_call_or_invoke(rpc_recv, &[phi.as_basic_value()], "rpc.size.next")
@ -733,13 +765,12 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
            ctx.builder.position_at_end(alloc_bb);
            // Align the allocation to sizeof(T)
-            let alloc_size = round_up(ctx, alloc_size, itemsize);
+            let alloc_size = round_up(ctx, alloc_size, llvm_elem_sizeof);
            // TODO(Derppening): Candidate for refactor into type_aligned_alloca
            let alloc_ptr = ctx
                .builder
                .build_array_alloca(
-                    dtype_llvm,
+                    llvm_elem_ty,
-                    ctx.builder.build_int_unsigned_div(alloc_size, itemsize, "").unwrap(),
+                    ctx.builder.build_int_unsigned_div(alloc_size, llvm_elem_sizeof, "").unwrap(),
                    "rpc.alloc",
                )
                .unwrap();
@ -793,7 +824,6 @@ fn rpc_codegen_callback_fn<'ctx>(
    fun: (&FunSignature, DefinitionId),
    args: Vec<(Option<StrRef>, ValueEnum<'ctx>)>,
    generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
    is_async: bool,
 ) -> Result<Option<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>>, String> {
    let int8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
    let int32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
@ -902,88 +932,53 @@ fn rpc_codegen_callback_fn<'ctx>(
    }
    // call
-    if is_async {
+    let rpc_send = ctx.module.get_function("rpc_send").unwrap_or_else(|| {
-        let rpc_send_async = ctx.module.get_function("rpc_send_async").unwrap_or_else(|| {
+        ctx.module.add_function(
-            ctx.module.add_function(
+            "rpc_send",
-                "rpc_send_async",
+            ctx.ctx.void_type().fn_type(
-                ctx.ctx.void_type().fn_type(
+                &[
-                    &[
+                    int32.into(),
-                        int32.into(),
+                    tag_ptr_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(),
-                        tag_ptr_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(),
+                    ptr_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(),
-                        ptr_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(),
+                ],
-                    ],
+                false,
-                    false,
+            ),
-                ),
+            None,
-                None,
+        )
-            )
+    });
-        });
+    ctx.builder
-        ctx.builder
+        .build_call(rpc_send, &[service_id.into(), tag_ptr.into(), args_ptr.into()], "rpc.send")
-            .build_call(
+        .unwrap();
                rpc_send_async,
                &[service_id.into(), tag_ptr.into(), args_ptr.into()],
                "rpc.send",
            )
            .unwrap();
    } else {
        let rpc_send = ctx.module.get_function("rpc_send").unwrap_or_else(|| {
            ctx.module.add_function(
                "rpc_send",
                ctx.ctx.void_type().fn_type(
                    &[
                        int32.into(),
                        tag_ptr_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(),
                        ptr_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(),
                    ],
                    false,
                ),
                None,
            )
        });
        ctx.builder
            .build_call(rpc_send, &[service_id.into(), tag_ptr.into(), args_ptr.into()], "rpc.send")
            .unwrap();
    }
    // reclaim stack space used by arguments
    call_stackrestore(ctx, stackptr);
-    if is_async {
+    let result = format_rpc_ret(generator, ctx, fun.0.ret);
        // async RPCs do not return any values
        Ok(None)
    } else {
        let result = format_rpc_ret(generator, ctx, fun.0.ret);
-        if !result.is_some_and(|res| res.get_type().is_pointer_type()) {
+    if !result.is_some_and(|res| res.get_type().is_pointer_type()) {
-            // An RPC returning an NDArray would not touch here.
+        // An RPC returning an NDArray would not touch here.
-            call_stackrestore(ctx, stackptr);
+        call_stackrestore(ctx, stackptr);
        }
        Ok(result)
    }
    Ok(result)
 }
-pub fn attributes_writeback<'ctx>(
+pub fn attributes_writeback(
-    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'_, '_>,
    generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
    inner_resolver: &InnerResolver,
    host_attributes: &PyObject,
    return_obj: Option<(Type, ValueEnum<'ctx>)>,
 ) -> Result<(), String> {
    Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<Result<(), String>> {
-        let host_attributes: &PyList = host_attributes.downcast(py)?;
+        let host_attributes = host_attributes.downcast_bound::<PyList>(py)?;
        let top_levels = ctx.top_level.definitions.read();
        let globals = inner_resolver.global_value_ids.read();
        let int32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
        let zero = int32.const_zero();
        let mut values = Vec::new();
        let mut scratch_buffer = Vec::new();
        if let Some((ty, obj)) = return_obj {
            values.push((ty, obj.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, ty).unwrap()));
        }
        for val in (*globals).values() {
-            let val = val.as_ref(py);
+            let val = val.bind_borrowed(py);
            let ty = inner_resolver.get_obj_type(
                py,
                val,
@ -1021,7 +1016,7 @@ pub fn attributes_writeback<'ctx>(
                        }
                    }
                    if !attributes.is_empty() {
-                        let pydict = PyDict::new(py);
+                        let pydict = PyDict::new_bound(py);
                        pydict.set_item("obj", val)?;
                        pydict.set_item("fields", attributes)?;
                        host_attributes.append(pydict)?;
@ -1031,7 +1026,7 @@ pub fn attributes_writeback<'ctx>(
                    let elem_ty = iter_type_vars(params).next().unwrap().ty;
                    if gen_rpc_tag(ctx, elem_ty, &mut scratch_buffer).is_ok() {
-                        let pydict = PyDict::new(py);
+                        let pydict = PyDict::new_bound(py);
                        pydict.set_item("obj", val)?;
                        host_attributes.append(pydict)?;
                        values.push((
@ -1060,7 +1055,7 @@ pub fn attributes_writeback<'ctx>(
        let args: Vec<_> =
            values.into_iter().map(|(_, val)| (None, ValueEnum::Dynamic(val))).collect();
        if let Err(e) =
-            rpc_codegen_callback_fn(ctx, None, (&fun, PrimDef::Int32.id()), args, generator, true)
+            rpc_codegen_callback_fn(ctx, None, (&fun, PrimDef::Int32.id()), args, generator)
        {
            return Ok(Err(e));
        }
@ -1070,9 +1065,9 @@ pub fn attributes_writeback<'ctx>(
    Ok(())
 }
-pub fn rpc_codegen_callback(is_async: bool) -> Arc<GenCall> {
+pub fn rpc_codegen_callback() -> Arc<GenCall> {
-    Arc::new(GenCall::new(Box::new(move |ctx, obj, fun, args, generator| {
+    Arc::new(GenCall::new(Box::new(|ctx, obj, fun, args, generator| {
-        rpc_codegen_callback_fn(ctx, obj, fun, args, generator, is_async)
+        rpc_codegen_callback_fn(ctx, obj, fun, args, generator)
    })))
 }
@ -1286,8 +1281,7 @@ fn polymorphic_print<'ctx>(
                fmt.push('[');
                flush(ctx, generator, &mut fmt, &mut args);
-                let val =
+                let val = ListValue::from_ptr_val(value.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
                    ListValue::from_pointer_value(value.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
                let len = val.load_size(ctx, None);
                let last =
                    ctx.builder.build_int_sub(len, llvm_usize.const_int(1, false), "").unwrap();
@ -1338,50 +1332,56 @@ fn polymorphic_print<'ctx>(
            }
            TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
                let (elem_ty, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ty);
                fmt.push_str("array([");
                flush(ctx, generator, &mut fmt, &mut args);
-                let (dtype, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ty);
+                let val = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(value.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
-                let ndarray = NDArrayType::from_unifier_type(generator, ctx, ty)
+                let len = call_ndarray_calc_size(generator, ctx, &val.dim_sizes(), (None, None));
-                    .map_value(value.into_pointer_value(), None);
+                let last =
                    ctx.builder.build_int_sub(len, llvm_usize.const_int(1, false), "").unwrap();
-                let num_0 = llvm_usize.const_zero();
+                gen_for_callback_incrementing(
                    generator,
                    ctx,
                    None,
                    llvm_usize.const_zero(),
                    (len, false),
                    |generator, ctx, _, i| {
                        let elem = unsafe { val.data().get_unchecked(ctx, generator, &i, None) };
-                // Print `ndarray` as a flat list delimited by interspersed with ", \0"
+                        polymorphic_print(
-                ndarray.foreach(generator, ctx, |generator, ctx, _, hdl| {
+                            ctx,
-                    let i = hdl.get_index(ctx);
+                            generator,
-                    let scalar = hdl.get_scalar(ctx);
+                            &[(elem_ty, elem.into())],
                            "",
                            None,
                            true,
                            as_rtio,
                        )?;
-                    // if (i != 0) puts(", ");
+                        gen_if_callback(
-                    gen_if_callback(
+                            generator,
-                        generator,
+                            ctx,
-                        ctx,
+                            |_, ctx| {
-                        |_, ctx| {
+                                Ok(ctx
-                            let not_first = ctx
+                                    .builder
-                                .builder
+                                    .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, i, last, "")
-                                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, i, num_0, "")
+                                    .unwrap())
-                                .unwrap();
+                            },
-                            Ok(not_first)
+                            |generator, ctx| {
-                        },
+                                printf(ctx, generator, ", \0".into(), Vec::default());
                        |generator, ctx| {
                            printf(ctx, generator, ", \0".into(), Vec::default());
                            Ok(())
                        },
                        |_, _| Ok(()),
                    )?;
-                    // Print element
+                                Ok(())
-                    polymorphic_print(
+                            },
-                        ctx,
+                            |_, _| Ok(()),
-                        generator,
+                        )?;
-                        &[(dtype, scalar.into())],
+
-                        "",
+                        Ok(())
-                        None,
+                    },
-                        true,
+                    llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
-                        as_rtio,
+                )?;
                    )?;
                    Ok(())
                })?;
                fmt.push_str(")]");
                flush(ctx, generator, &mut fmt, &mut args);
@ -1391,7 +1391,7 @@ fn polymorphic_print<'ctx>(
                fmt.push_str("range(");
                flush(ctx, generator, &mut fmt, &mut args);
-                let val = RangeValue::from_pointer_value(value.into_pointer_value(), None);
+                let val = RangeValue::from_ptr_val(value.into_pointer_value(), None);
                let (start, stop, step) = destructure_range(ctx, val);
--- a/nac3artiq/src/lib.rs
+++ b/nac3artiq/src/lib.rs
@ -1,4 +1,10 @@
-#![deny(future_incompatible, let_underscore, nonstandard_style, clippy::all)]
+#![deny(
    future_incompatible,
    let_underscore,
    nonstandard_style,
    rust_2024_compatibility,
    clippy::all
 )]
 #![warn(clippy::pedantic)]
 #![allow(
    unsafe_op_in_unsafe_fn,
@ -10,65 +16,66 @@
    clippy::wildcard_imports
 )]
-use std::{
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
-    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+use std::fs;
-    fs,
+use std::io::Write;
-    io::Write,
+use std::process::Command;
-    process::Command,
+use std::rc::Rc;
-    rc::Rc,
+use std::sync::Arc;
    sync::Arc,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use parking_lot::{Mutex, RwLock};
+use nac3core::codegen::{gen_func_impl, CodeGenLLVMOptions, CodeGenTargetMachineOptions};
 use nac3core::inkwell::{
    context::Context,
    memory_buffer::MemoryBuffer,
    module::{Linkage, Module},
    passes::PassBuilderOptions,
    support::is_multithreaded,
    targets::*,
    OptimizationLevel,
 };
 use nac3core::nac3parser::{
    ast::{ExprKind, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef},
    parser::parse_program,
 };
 use nac3core::toplevel::builtins::get_exn_constructor;
 use nac3core::typecheck::typedef::{into_var_map, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap};
 use pyo3::{
    create_exception, exceptions,
    prelude::*,
-    types::{PyBytes, PyDict, PyNone, PySet},
+    types::{PyBytes, PyDict, PySet},
 };
-use tempfile::{self, TempDir};
+
 use parking_lot::{Mutex, RwLock};
 use nac3core::{
-    codegen::{
+    codegen::irrt::load_irrt,
-        concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore, gen_func_impl, irrt::load_irrt, CodeGenLLVMOptions,
+    codegen::{concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore, CodeGenTask, WithCall, WorkerRegistry},
        CodeGenTargetMachineOptions, CodeGenTask, CodeGenerator, WithCall, WorkerRegistry,
    },
    inkwell::{
        context::Context,
        memory_buffer::MemoryBuffer,
        module::{FlagBehavior, Linkage, Module},
        passes::PassBuilderOptions,
        support::is_multithreaded,
        targets::*,
        OptimizationLevel,
    },
    nac3parser::{
        ast::{Constant, ExprKind, Located, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef},
        parser::parse_program,
    },
    symbol_resolver::SymbolResolver,
    toplevel::{
        builtins::get_exn_constructor,
        composer::{BuiltinFuncCreator, BuiltinFuncSpec, ComposerConfig, TopLevelComposer},
        DefinitionId, GenCall, TopLevelDef,
    },
-    typecheck::{
+    typecheck::typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg},
-        type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore,
+    typecheck::{type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore, typedef::Type},
        typedef::{into_var_map, FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
    },
 };
 use nac3ld::Linker;
-use codegen::{
+use crate::{
-    attributes_writeback, gen_core_log, gen_rtio_log, rpc_codegen_callback, ArtiqCodeGenerator,
+    codegen::{
        attributes_writeback, gen_core_log, gen_rtio_log, rpc_codegen_callback, ArtiqCodeGenerator,
    },
    symbol_resolver::{DeferredEvaluationStore, InnerResolver, PythonHelper, Resolver},
 };
-use symbol_resolver::{DeferredEvaluationStore, InnerResolver, PythonHelper, Resolver};
+use tempfile::{self, TempDir};
 use timeline::TimeFns;
 mod codegen;
 mod symbol_resolver;
 mod timeline;
 use timeline::TimeFns;
 #[derive(PartialEq, Clone, Copy)]
 enum Isa {
    Host,
@ -142,32 +149,14 @@ impl Nac3 {
        module: &PyObject,
        registered_class_ids: &HashSet<u64>,
    ) -> PyResult<()> {
-        let (module_name, source_file, source) =
+        let (module_name, source_file) = Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<(String, String)> {
-            Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<(String, String, String)> {
+            let module = module.bind_borrowed(py);
-                let module: &PyAny = module.extract(py)?;
+            Ok((module.getattr("__name__")?.extract()?, module.getattr("__file__")?.extract()?))
-                let source_file = module.getattr("__file__");
+        })?;
                let (source_file, source) = if let Ok(source_file) = source_file {
                    let source_file = source_file.extract()?;
                    (
                        source_file,
                        fs::read_to_string(source_file).map_err(|e| {
                            exceptions::PyIOError::new_err(format!(
                                "failed to read input file: {e}"
                            ))
                        })?,
                    )
                } else {
                    // kernels submitted by content have no file
                    // but still can provide source by StringLoader
                    let get_src_fn = module
                        .getattr("__loader__")?
                        .extract::<PyObject>()?
                        .getattr(py, "get_source")?;
                    ("<expcontent>", get_src_fn.call1(py, (PyNone::get(py),))?.extract(py)?)
                };
                Ok((module.getattr("__name__")?.extract()?, source_file.to_string(), source))
            })?;
        let source = fs::read_to_string(&source_file).map_err(|e| {
            exceptions::PyIOError::new_err(format!("failed to read input file: {e}"))
        })?;
        let parser_result = parse_program(&source, source_file.into())
            .map_err(|e| exceptions::PySyntaxError::new_err(format!("parse error: {e}")))?;
@ -187,14 +176,14 @@ impl Nac3 {
                    // Drop unregistered (i.e. host-only) base classes.
                    bases.retain(|base| {
                        Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<bool> {
-                            let id_fn = PyModule::import(py, "builtins")?.getattr("id")?;
+                            let module = module.bind_borrowed(py);
                            let id_fn = PyModule::import_bound(py, "builtins")?.getattr("id")?;
                            match &base.node {
                                ExprKind::Name { id, .. } => {
                                    if *id == "Exception".into() {
                                        Ok(true)
                                    } else {
-                                        let base_obj =
+                                        let base_obj = module.getattr(id.to_string().as_str())?;
                                            module.getattr(py, id.to_string().as_str())?;
                                        let base_id = id_fn.call1((base_obj,))?.extract()?;
                                        Ok(registered_class_ids.contains(&base_id))
                                    }
@ -207,8 +196,10 @@ impl Nac3 {
                    body.retain(|stmt| {
                        if let StmtKind::FunctionDef { ref decorator_list, .. } = stmt.node {
                            decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
-                                if let Some(id) = decorator_id_string(decorator) {
+                                if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = decorator.node {
-                                    id == "kernel" || id == "portable" || id == "rpc"
+                                    id.to_string() == "kernel"
                                        || id.to_string() == "portable"
                                        || id.to_string() == "rpc"
                                } else {
                                    false
                                }
@ -221,8 +212,9 @@ impl Nac3 {
                }
                StmtKind::FunctionDef { ref decorator_list, .. } => {
                    decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
-                        if let Some(id) = decorator_id_string(decorator) {
+                        if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = decorator.node {
-                            id == "extern" || id == "kernel" || id == "portable" || id == "rpc"
+                            let id = id.to_string();
                            id == "extern" || id == "portable" || id == "kernel" || id == "rpc"
                        } else {
                            false
                        }
@ -371,10 +363,10 @@ impl Nac3 {
    fn compile_method<T>(
        &self,
-        obj: &PyAny,
+        obj: &Bound<PyAny>,
        method_name: &str,
-        args: Vec<&PyAny>,
+        args: Vec<Bound<PyAny>>,
-        embedding_map: &PyAny,
+        embedding_map: &Bound<PyAny>,
        py: Python,
        link_fn: &dyn Fn(&Module) -> PyResult<T>,
    ) -> PyResult<T> {
@ -386,8 +378,8 @@ impl Nac3 {
            size_t,
        );
-        let builtins = PyModule::import(py, "builtins")?;
+        let builtins = PyModule::import_bound(py, "builtins")?;
-        let typings = PyModule::import(py, "typing")?;
+        let typings = PyModule::import_bound(py, "typing")?;
        let id_fn = builtins.getattr("id")?;
        let issubclass = builtins.getattr("issubclass")?;
        let exn_class = builtins.getattr("Exception")?;
@ -425,13 +417,17 @@ impl Nac3 {
        let mut rpc_ids = vec![];
        for (stmt, path, module) in &self.top_levels {
-            let py_module: &PyAny = module.extract(py)?;
+            let py_module = module.bind_borrowed(py);
            let module_id: u64 = id_fn.call1((py_module,))?.extract()?;
            let helper = helper.clone();
            let class_obj;
            if let StmtKind::ClassDef { name, .. } = &stmt.node {
                let class = py_module.getattr(name.to_string().as_str()).unwrap();
-                if issubclass.call1((class, exn_class)).unwrap().extract().unwrap()
+                if issubclass
                    .call1((class.as_borrowed(), exn_class.as_borrowed()))
                    .unwrap()
                    .extract()
                    .unwrap()
                    && class.getattr("artiq_builtin").is_err()
                {
                    class_obj = Some(class);
@ -444,8 +440,8 @@ impl Nac3 {
            let (name_to_pyid, resolver) =
                module_to_resolver_cache.get(&module_id).cloned().unwrap_or_else(|| {
                    let mut name_to_pyid: HashMap<StrRef, u64> = HashMap::new();
-                    let members: &PyDict =
+                    let members = py_module.getattr("__dict__").unwrap();
-                        py_module.getattr("__dict__").unwrap().downcast().unwrap();
+                    let members = members.downcast::<PyDict>().unwrap();
                    for (key, val) in members {
                        let key: &str = key.extract().unwrap();
                        let val = id_fn.call1((val,)).unwrap().extract().unwrap();
@ -488,25 +484,9 @@ impl Nac3 {
            match &stmt.node {
                StmtKind::FunctionDef { decorator_list, .. } => {
-                    if decorator_list
+                    if decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| matches!(decorator.node, ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == "rpc".into())) {
-                        .iter()
+                        store_fun.call1(py, (def_id.0.into_py(py), module.getattr(py, name.to_string().as_str()).unwrap())).unwrap();
-                        .any(|decorator| decorator_id_string(decorator) == Some("rpc".to_string()))
+                        rpc_ids.push((None, def_id));
                    {
                        store_fun
                            .call1(
                                py,
                                (
                                    def_id.0.into_py(py),
                                    module.getattr(py, name.to_string().as_str()).unwrap(),
                                ),
                            )
                            .unwrap();
                        let is_async = decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
                            decorator_get_flags(decorator)
                                .iter()
                                .any(|constant| *constant == Constant::Str("async".into()))
                        });
                        rpc_ids.push((None, def_id, is_async));
                    }
                }
                StmtKind::ClassDef { name, body, .. } => {
@ -514,26 +494,19 @@ impl Nac3 {
                    let class_obj = module.getattr(py, class_name.as_str()).unwrap();
                    for stmt in body {
                        if let StmtKind::FunctionDef { name, decorator_list, .. } = &stmt.node {
-                            if decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
+                            if decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| matches!(decorator.node, ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == "rpc".into())) {
                                decorator_id_string(decorator) == Some("rpc".to_string())
                            }) {
                                let is_async = decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
                                    decorator_get_flags(decorator)
                                        .iter()
                                        .any(|constant| *constant == Constant::Str("async".into()))
                                });
                                if name == &"__init__".into() {
                                    return Err(CompileError::new_err(format!(
                                        "compilation failed\n----------\nThe constructor of class {} should not be decorated with rpc decorator (at {})",
                                        class_name, stmt.location
                                    )));
                                }
-                                rpc_ids.push((Some((class_obj.clone(), *name)), def_id, is_async));
+                                rpc_ids.push((Some((class_obj.clone(), *name)), def_id));
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }
-                _ => (),
+                _ => ()
            }
            let id = *name_to_pyid.get(&name).unwrap();
@ -546,15 +519,15 @@ impl Nac3 {
            }
        }
-        let id_fun = PyModule::import(py, "builtins")?.getattr("id")?;
+        let id_fun = PyModule::import_bound(py, "builtins")?.getattr("id")?;
        let mut name_to_pyid: HashMap<StrRef, u64> = HashMap::new();
-        let module = PyModule::new(py, "tmp")?;
+        let module = PyModule::new_bound(py, "tmp")?;
        module.add("base", obj)?;
        name_to_pyid.insert("base".into(), id_fun.call1((obj,))?.extract()?);
        let mut arg_names = vec![];
        for (i, arg) in args.into_iter().enumerate() {
            let name = format!("tmp{i}");
-            module.add(&name, arg)?;
+            module.add(&*name, arg.clone())?;
            name_to_pyid.insert(name.clone().into(), id_fun.call1((arg,))?.extract()?);
            arg_names.push(name);
        }
@ -577,7 +550,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
            field_to_val: RwLock::default(),
            name_to_pyid,
            module: module.to_object(py),
-            helper: helper.clone(),
+            helper,
            string_store: self.string_store.clone(),
            exception_ids: self.exception_ids.clone(),
            deferred_eval_store: self.deferred_eval_store.clone(),
@ -629,12 +602,13 @@ impl Nac3 {
        let top_level = Arc::new(composer.make_top_level_context());
        {
            let rpc_codegen = rpc_codegen_callback();
            let defs = top_level.definitions.read();
-            for (class_data, id, is_async) in &rpc_ids {
+            for (class_data, id) in &rpc_ids {
                let mut def = defs[id.0].write();
                match &mut *def {
                    TopLevelDef::Function { codegen_callback, .. } => {
-                        *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen_callback(*is_async));
+                        *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen.clone());
                    }
                    TopLevelDef::Class { methods, .. } => {
                        let (class_def, method_name) = class_data.as_ref().unwrap();
@ -645,7 +619,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
                            if let TopLevelDef::Function { codegen_callback, .. } =
                                &mut *defs[id.0].write()
                            {
-                                *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen_callback(*is_async));
+                                *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen.clone());
                                store_fun
                                    .call1(
                                        py,
@ -660,11 +634,6 @@ impl Nac3 {
                            }
                        }
                    }
                    TopLevelDef::Variable { .. } => {
                        return Err(CompileError::new_err(String::from(
                            "Unsupported @rpc annotation on global variable",
                        )))
                    }
                }
            }
        }
@ -685,12 +654,33 @@ impl Nac3 {
        let task = CodeGenTask {
            subst: Vec::default(),
            symbol_name: "__modinit__".to_string(),
            body: instance.body,
            signature,
            resolver: resolver.clone(),
            store,
            unifier_index: instance.unifier_id,
            calls: instance.calls,
            id: 0,
        };
        let mut store = ConcreteTypeStore::new();
        let mut cache = HashMap::new();
        let signature = store.from_signature(
            &mut composer.unifier,
            &self.primitive,
            &fun_signature,
            &mut cache,
        );
        let signature = store.add_cty(signature);
        let attributes_writeback_task = CodeGenTask {
            subst: Vec::default(),
            symbol_name: "attributes_writeback".to_string(),
            body: Arc::new(Vec::default()),
            signature,
            resolver,
            store,
            unifier_index: instance.unifier_id,
-            calls: instance.calls,
+            calls: Arc::new(HashMap::default()),
            id: 0,
        };
@ -714,27 +704,19 @@ impl Nac3 {
            .collect();
        let membuffer = membuffers.clone();
        let mut has_return = false;
        py.allow_threads(|| {
            let (registry, handles) =
                WorkerRegistry::create_workers(threads, top_level.clone(), &self.llvm_options, &f);
            registry.add_task(task);
            registry.wait_tasks_complete(handles);
-            let mut generator = ArtiqCodeGenerator::new("main".to_string(), size_t, self.time_fns);
+            let mut generator =
                ArtiqCodeGenerator::new("attributes_writeback".to_string(), size_t, self.time_fns);
            let context = Context::create();
-            let module = context.create_module("main");
+            let module = context.create_module("attributes_writeback");
            let target_machine = self.llvm_options.create_target_machine().unwrap();
            module.set_data_layout(&target_machine.get_target_data().get_data_layout());
            module.set_triple(&target_machine.get_triple());
            module.add_basic_value_flag(
                "Debug Info Version",
                FlagBehavior::Warning,
                context.i32_type().const_int(3, false),
            );
            module.add_basic_value_flag(
                "Dwarf Version",
                FlagBehavior::Warning,
                context.i32_type().const_int(4, false),
            );
            let builder = context.create_builder();
            let (_, module, _) = gen_func_impl(
                &context,
@ -742,27 +724,9 @@ impl Nac3 {
                &registry,
                builder,
                module,
-                task,
+                attributes_writeback_task,
                |generator, ctx| {
-                    assert_eq!(instance.body.len(), 1, "toplevel module should have 1 statement");
+                    attributes_writeback(ctx, generator, inner_resolver.as_ref(), &host_attributes)
                    let StmtKind::Expr { value: ref expr, .. } = instance.body[0].node else {
                        unreachable!("toplevel statement must be an expression")
                    };
                    let ExprKind::Call { .. } = expr.node else {
                        unreachable!("toplevel expression must be a function call")
                    };
                    let return_obj =
                        generator.gen_expr(ctx, expr)?.map(|value| (expr.custom.unwrap(), value));
                    has_return = return_obj.is_some();
                    registry.wait_tasks_complete(handles);
                    attributes_writeback(
                        ctx,
                        generator,
                        inner_resolver.as_ref(),
                        &host_attributes,
                        return_obj,
                    )
                },
            )
            .unwrap();
@ -771,23 +735,35 @@ impl Nac3 {
            membuffer.lock().push(buffer);
        });
        embedding_map.setattr("expects_return", has_return).unwrap();
        // Link all modules into `main`.
        let buffers = membuffers.lock();
        let main = context
-            .create_module_from_ir(MemoryBuffer::create_from_memory_range(
+            .create_module_from_ir(MemoryBuffer::create_from_memory_range(&buffers[0], "main"))
                buffers.last().unwrap(),
                "main",
            ))
            .unwrap();
-        for buffer in buffers.iter().rev().skip(1) {
+        for buffer in buffers.iter().skip(1) {
            let other = context
                .create_module_from_ir(MemoryBuffer::create_from_memory_range(buffer, "main"))
                .unwrap();
            main.link_in_module(other).map_err(|err| CompileError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
        }
        let builder = context.create_builder();
        let modinit_return = main
            .get_function("__modinit__")
            .unwrap()
            .get_last_basic_block()
            .unwrap()
            .get_terminator()
            .unwrap();
        builder.position_before(&modinit_return);
        builder
            .build_call(
                main.get_function("attributes_writeback").unwrap(),
                &[],
                "attributes_writeback",
            )
            .unwrap();
        main.link_in_module(irrt).map_err(|err| CompileError::new_err(err.to_string()))?;
        let mut function_iter = main.get_first_function();
@ -822,20 +798,6 @@ impl Nac3 {
            panic!("Failed to run optimization for module `main`: {}", err.to_string());
        }
        Python::with_gil(|py| {
            let string_store = self.string_store.read();
            let mut string_store_vec = string_store.iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
            string_store_vec.sort_by(|(_s1, key1), (_s2, key2)| key1.cmp(key2));
            for (s, key) in string_store_vec {
                let embed_key: i32 = helper.store_str.call1(py, (s,)).unwrap().extract(py).unwrap();
                assert_eq!(
                    embed_key, *key,
                    "string {s} is out of sync between embedding map (key={embed_key}) and \
                    the internal string store (key={key})"
                );
            }
        });
        link_fn(&main)
    }
@ -888,41 +850,6 @@ impl Nac3 {
    }
 }
 /// Retrieves the Name.id from a decorator, supports decorators with arguments.
 fn decorator_id_string(decorator: &Located<ExprKind>) -> Option<String> {
    if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = decorator.node {
        // Bare decorator
        return Some(id.to_string());
    } else if let ExprKind::Call { func, .. } = &decorator.node {
        // Decorators that are calls (e.g. "@rpc()") have Call for the node,
        // need to extract the id from within.
        if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = func.node {
            return Some(id.to_string());
        }
    }
    None
 }
 /// Retrieves flags from a decorator, if any.
 fn decorator_get_flags(decorator: &Located<ExprKind>) -> Vec<Constant> {
    let mut flags = vec![];
    if let ExprKind::Call { keywords, .. } = &decorator.node {
        for keyword in keywords {
            if keyword.node.arg != Some("flags".into()) {
                continue;
            }
            if let ExprKind::Set { elts } = &keyword.node.value.node {
                for elt in elts {
                    if let ExprKind::Constant { value, .. } = &elt.node {
                        flags.push(value.clone());
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }
    flags
 }
 fn link_with_lld(elf_filename: String, obj_filename: String) -> PyResult<()> {
    let linker_args = vec![
        "-shared".to_string(),
@ -979,7 +906,7 @@ fn add_exceptions(
 #[pymethods]
 impl Nac3 {
    #[new]
-    fn new(isa: &str, artiq_builtins: &PyDict, py: Python) -> PyResult<Self> {
+    fn new(isa: &str, artiq_builtins: &Bound<PyDict>, py: Python) -> PyResult<Self> {
        let isa = match isa {
            "host" => Isa::Host,
            "rv32g" => Isa::RiscV32G,
@ -1043,90 +970,55 @@ impl Nac3 {
            ),
        ];
-        let builtins_mod = PyModule::import(py, "builtins").unwrap();
+        let builtins_mod = PyModule::import_bound(py, "builtins").unwrap();
        let id_fn = builtins_mod.getattr("id").unwrap();
-        let numpy_mod = PyModule::import(py, "numpy").unwrap();
+        let numpy_mod = PyModule::import_bound(py, "numpy").unwrap();
-        let typing_mod = PyModule::import(py, "typing").unwrap();
+        let typing_mod = PyModule::import_bound(py, "typing").unwrap();
-        let types_mod = PyModule::import(py, "types").unwrap();
+        let types_mod = PyModule::import_bound(py, "types").unwrap();
-        let get_id = |x: &PyAny| id_fn.call1((x,)).and_then(PyAny::extract).unwrap();
+        let get_id = |x: Borrowed<PyAny>| id_fn.call1((x,)).and_then(|id| id.extract()).unwrap();
-        let get_attr_id = |obj: &PyModule, attr| {
+        let get_attr_id = |obj: Borrowed<PyModule>, attr| {
            id_fn.call1((obj.getattr(attr).unwrap(),)).unwrap().extract().unwrap()
        };
        let primitive_ids = PrimitivePythonId {
-            virtual_id: get_id(artiq_builtins.get_item("virtual").ok().flatten().unwrap()),
+            virtual_id: get_id(
                artiq_builtins.get_item("virtual").ok().flatten().unwrap().as_borrowed(),
            ),
            generic_alias: (
-                get_attr_id(typing_mod, "_GenericAlias"),
+                get_attr_id(typing_mod.as_borrowed(), "_GenericAlias"),
-                get_attr_id(types_mod, "GenericAlias"),
+                get_attr_id(types_mod.as_borrowed(), "GenericAlias"),
            ),
-            none: get_id(artiq_builtins.get_item("none").ok().flatten().unwrap()),
+            none: get_id(artiq_builtins.get_item("none").ok().flatten().unwrap().as_borrowed()),
-            typevar: get_attr_id(typing_mod, "TypeVar"),
+            typevar: get_attr_id(typing_mod.as_borrowed(), "TypeVar"),
            const_generic_marker: get_id(
-                artiq_builtins.get_item("_ConstGenericMarker").ok().flatten().unwrap(),
+                artiq_builtins
                    .get_item("_ConstGenericMarker")
                    .ok()
                    .flatten()
                    .unwrap()
                    .as_borrowed(),
            ),
-            int: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "int"),
+            int: get_attr_id(builtins_mod.as_borrowed(), "int"),
-            int32: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "int32"),
+            int32: get_attr_id(numpy_mod.as_borrowed(), "int32"),
-            int64: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "int64"),
+            int64: get_attr_id(numpy_mod.as_borrowed(), "int64"),
-            uint32: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "uint32"),
+            uint32: get_attr_id(numpy_mod.as_borrowed(), "uint32"),
-            uint64: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "uint64"),
+            uint64: get_attr_id(numpy_mod.as_borrowed(), "uint64"),
-            bool: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "bool"),
+            bool: get_attr_id(builtins_mod.as_borrowed(), "bool"),
-            np_bool_: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "bool_"),
+            np_bool_: get_attr_id(numpy_mod.as_borrowed(), "bool_"),
-            string: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "str"),
+            string: get_attr_id(builtins_mod.as_borrowed(), "str"),
-            np_str_: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "str_"),
+            np_str_: get_attr_id(numpy_mod.as_borrowed(), "str_"),
-            float: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "float"),
+            float: get_attr_id(builtins_mod.as_borrowed(), "float"),
-            float64: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "float64"),
+            float64: get_attr_id(numpy_mod.as_borrowed(), "float64"),
-            list: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "list"),
+            list: get_attr_id(builtins_mod.as_borrowed(), "list"),
-            ndarray: get_attr_id(numpy_mod, "ndarray"),
+            ndarray: get_attr_id(numpy_mod.as_borrowed(), "ndarray"),
-            tuple: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "tuple"),
+            tuple: get_attr_id(builtins_mod.as_borrowed(), "tuple"),
-            exception: get_attr_id(builtins_mod, "Exception"),
+            exception: get_attr_id(builtins_mod.as_borrowed(), "Exception"),
-            option: get_id(artiq_builtins.get_item("Option").ok().flatten().unwrap()),
+            option: get_id(artiq_builtins.get_item("Option").ok().flatten().unwrap().as_borrowed()),
        };
        let working_directory = tempfile::Builder::new().prefix("nac3-").tempdir().unwrap();
        fs::write(working_directory.path().join("kernel.ld"), include_bytes!("kernel.ld")).unwrap();
        let mut string_store: HashMap<String, i32> = HashMap::default();
        // Keep this list of exceptions in sync with `EXCEPTION_ID_LOOKUP` in `artiq::firmware::ksupport::eh_artiq`
        // The exceptions declared here must be defined in `artiq.coredevice.exceptions`
        // Verify synchronization by running the test cases in `artiq.test.coredevice.test_exceptions`
        let runtime_exception_names = [
            "RTIOUnderflow",
            "RTIOOverflow",
            "RTIODestinationUnreachable",
            "DMAError",
            "I2CError",
            "CacheError",
            "SPIError",
            "SubkernelError",
            "0:AssertionError",
            "0:AttributeError",
            "0:IndexError",
            "0:IOError",
            "0:KeyError",
            "0:NotImplementedError",
            "0:OverflowError",
            "0:RuntimeError",
            "0:TimeoutError",
            "0:TypeError",
            "0:ValueError",
            "0:ZeroDivisionError",
            "0:LinAlgError",
            "UnwrapNoneError",
        ];
        // Preallocate runtime exception names
        for (i, name) in runtime_exception_names.iter().enumerate() {
            let exn_name = if name.find(':').is_none() {
                format!("0:artiq.coredevice.exceptions.{name}")
            } else {
                (*name).to_string()
            };
            let id = i32::try_from(i).unwrap();
            string_store.insert(exn_name, id);
        }
        Ok(Nac3 {
            isa,
            time_fns,
@ -1136,7 +1028,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
            top_levels: Vec::default(),
            pyid_to_def: Arc::default(),
            working_directory,
-            string_store: Arc::new(string_store.into()),
+            string_store: Arc::default(),
            exception_ids: Arc::default(),
            deferred_eval_store: DeferredEvaluationStore::new(),
            llvm_options: CodeGenLLVMOptions {
@ -1146,36 +1038,23 @@ impl Nac3 {
        })
    }
-    fn analyze(
+    fn analyze(&mut self, functions: &Bound<PySet>, classes: &Bound<PySet>) -> PyResult<()> {
        &mut self,
        functions: &PySet,
        classes: &PySet,
        content_modules: &PySet,
    ) -> PyResult<()> {
        let (modules, class_ids) =
            Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<(HashMap<u64, PyObject>, HashSet<u64>)> {
                let mut modules: HashMap<u64, PyObject> = HashMap::new();
                let mut class_ids: HashSet<u64> = HashSet::new();
-                let id_fn = PyModule::import(py, "builtins")?.getattr("id")?;
+                let id_fn = PyModule::import_bound(py, "builtins")?.getattr("id")?;
-                let getmodule_fn = PyModule::import(py, "inspect")?.getattr("getmodule")?;
+                let getmodule_fn = PyModule::import_bound(py, "inspect")?.getattr("getmodule")?;
                for function in functions {
-                    let module: PyObject = getmodule_fn.call1((function,))?.extract()?;
+                    let module = getmodule_fn.call1((function,))?.extract()?;
-                    if !module.is_none(py) {
+                    modules.insert(id_fn.call1((&module,))?.extract()?, module);
                        modules.insert(id_fn.call1((&module,))?.extract()?, module);
                    }
                }
                for class in classes {
-                    let module: PyObject = getmodule_fn.call1((class,))?.extract()?;
+                    let module = getmodule_fn.call1((class.as_borrowed(),))?.extract()?;
                    if !module.is_none(py) {
                        modules.insert(id_fn.call1((&module,))?.extract()?, module);
                    }
                    class_ids.insert(id_fn.call1((class,))?.extract()?);
                }
                for module in content_modules {
                    let module: PyObject = module.extract()?;
                    modules.insert(id_fn.call1((&module,))?.extract()?, module);
                    class_ids.insert(id_fn.call1((class,))?.extract()?);
                }
                Ok((modules, class_ids))
            })?;
@ -1188,11 +1067,11 @@ impl Nac3 {
    fn compile_method_to_file(
        &mut self,
-        obj: &PyAny,
+        obj: &Bound<PyAny>,
        method_name: &str,
-        args: Vec<&PyAny>,
+        args: Vec<Bound<PyAny>>,
        filename: &str,
-        embedding_map: &PyAny,
+        embedding_map: &Bound<PyAny>,
        py: Python,
    ) -> PyResult<()> {
        let target_machine = self.get_llvm_target_machine();
@ -1234,10 +1113,10 @@ impl Nac3 {
    fn compile_method_to_mem(
        &mut self,
-        obj: &PyAny,
+        obj: &Bound<PyAny>,
        method_name: &str,
-        args: Vec<&PyAny>,
+        args: Vec<Bound<PyAny>>,
-        embedding_map: &PyAny,
+        embedding_map: &Bound<PyAny>,
        py: Python,
    ) -> PyResult<PyObject> {
        let target_machine = self.get_llvm_target_machine();
@ -1256,7 +1135,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
                    working_directory.join("module.o").to_string_lossy().to_string(),
                )?;
-                Ok(PyBytes::new(py, &fs::read(filename).unwrap()).into())
+                Ok(PyBytes::new_bound(py, &fs::read(filename).unwrap()).into())
            };
            self.compile_method(obj, method_name, args, embedding_map, py, &link_fn)
@ -1266,7 +1145,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
                    .write_to_memory_buffer(module, FileType::Object)
                    .expect("couldn't write module to object file buffer");
                if let Ok(dyn_lib) = Linker::ld(object_mem.as_slice()) {
-                    Ok(PyBytes::new(py, &dyn_lib).into())
+                    Ok(PyBytes::new_bound(py, &dyn_lib).into())
                } else {
                    Err(CompileError::new_err("linker failed to process object file"))
                }
@ -1283,14 +1162,14 @@ extern "C" {
 }
 #[pymodule]
-fn nac3artiq(py: Python, m: &PyModule) -> PyResult<()> {
+fn nac3artiq(py: Python, m: &Bound<PyModule>) -> PyResult<()> {
    #[cfg(feature = "init-llvm-profile")]
    unsafe {
        __llvm_profile_initialize();
    }
    Target::initialize_all(&InitializationConfig::default());
-    m.add("CompileError", py.get_type::<CompileError>())?;
+    m.add("CompileError", py.get_type_bound::<CompileError>())?;
    m.add_class::<Nac3>()?;
    Ok(())
 }
--- a/nac3artiq/src/symbol_resolver.rs
+++ b/nac3artiq/src/symbol_resolver.rs
@ -1,32 +1,17 @@
-use std::{
+use crate::PrimitivePythonId;
    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
    sync::{
        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering::Relaxed},
        Arc,
    },
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use parking_lot::RwLock;
+use nac3core::inkwell::{
-use pyo3::{
+    module::Linkage,
-    types::{PyDict, PyTuple},
+    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
-    PyAny, PyErr, PyObject, PyResult, Python,
+    values::BasicValueEnum,
    AddressSpace,
 };
-
+use nac3core::nac3parser::ast::{self, StrRef};
 use super::PrimitivePythonId;
 use nac3core::{
    codegen::{
-        types::{ndarray::NDArrayType, ProxyType},
+        classes::{NDArrayType, ProxyType},
        values::ndarray::make_contiguous_strides,
        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
    },
    inkwell::{
        module::Linkage,
        types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
        values::BasicValueEnum,
        AddressSpace,
    },
    nac3parser::ast::{self, StrRef},
    symbol_resolver::{StaticValue, SymbolResolver, SymbolValue, ValueEnum},
    toplevel::{
        helper::PrimDef,
@ -38,6 +23,18 @@ use nac3core::{
        typedef::{into_var_map, iter_type_vars, Type, TypeEnum, TypeVar, Unifier, VarMap},
    },
 };
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
 use pyo3::{
    prelude::*,
    types::{PyDict, PyTuple},
 };
 use std::{
    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
    sync::{
        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering::Relaxed},
        Arc,
    },
 };
 pub enum PrimitiveValue {
    I32(i32),
@ -176,7 +173,7 @@ impl StaticValue for PythonValue {
        Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>> {
            self.resolver
-                .get_obj_value(py, self.value.as_ref(py), ctx, generator, expected_ty)
+                .get_obj_value(py, self.value.bind_borrowed(py), ctx, generator, expected_ty)
                .map(Option::unwrap)
        })
        .map_err(|e| e.to_string())
@ -245,10 +242,10 @@ impl StaticValue for PythonValue {
            let ty = helper.type_fn.call1(py, (&self.value,))?;
            let ty_id: u64 = helper.id_fn.call1(py, (ty,))?.extract(py)?;
            assert_eq!(ty_id, self.resolver.primitive_ids.tuple);
-            let tup: &PyTuple = self.value.extract(py)?;
+            let tup = self.value.downcast_bound::<PyTuple>(py)?;
            let elem = tup.get_item(index as usize)?;
-            let id = self.resolver.helper.id_fn.call1(py, (elem,))?.extract(py)?;
+            let id = self.resolver.helper.id_fn.call1(py, (elem.as_borrowed(),))?.extract(py)?;
-            Ok(Some((id, elem.into())))
+            Ok(Some((id, elem.unbind())))
        })
        .unwrap()
        .map(|(id, obj)| {
@ -266,21 +263,26 @@ impl InnerResolver {
    fn get_list_elem_type(
        &self,
        py: Python,
-        list: &PyAny,
+        list: Borrowed<PyAny>,
        len: usize,
        unifier: &mut Unifier,
        defs: &[Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>],
        primitives: &PrimitiveStore,
    ) -> PyResult<Result<Type, String>> {
-        let mut ty = match self.get_obj_type(py, list.get_item(0)?, unifier, defs, primitives)? {
+        let mut ty = match self.get_obj_type(
            py,
            list.get_item(0)?.as_borrowed(),
            unifier,
            defs,
            primitives,
        )? {
            Ok(t) => t,
            Err(e) => return Ok(Err(format!("type error ({e}) at element #0 of the list"))),
        };
        for i in 1..len {
-            let b = match list
+            let b = match list.get_item(i).map(|elem| {
-                .get_item(i)
+                self.get_obj_type(py, elem.as_borrowed(), unifier, defs, primitives)
-                .map(|elem| self.get_obj_type(py, elem, unifier, defs, primitives))??
+            })?? {
            {
                Ok(t) => t,
                Err(e) => return Ok(Err(format!("type error ({e}) at element #{i} of the list"))),
            };
@ -306,7 +308,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
    fn get_pyty_obj_type(
        &self,
        py: Python,
-        pyty: &PyAny,
+        pyty: Borrowed<PyAny>,
        unifier: &mut Unifier,
        defs: &[Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>],
        primitives: &PrimitiveStore,
@ -394,7 +396,8 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                (unifier.add_ty(ty), false)
            }))
        } else if ty_ty_id == self.primitive_ids.typevar {
-            let name: &str = pyty.getattr("__name__").unwrap().extract().unwrap();
+            let name = pyty.getattr("__name__").unwrap();
            let name: &str = name.extract().unwrap();
            let (constraint_types, is_const_generic) = {
                let constraints = pyty.getattr("__constraints__").unwrap();
                let mut result: Vec<Type> = vec![];
@ -403,7 +406,8 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                let mut is_const_generic = false;
                for i in 0usize.. {
                    if let Ok(constr) = constraints.get_item(i) {
-                        let constr_id: u64 = self.helper.id_fn.call1(py, (constr,))?.extract(py)?;
+                        let constr_id: u64 =
                            self.helper.id_fn.call1(py, (constr.as_borrowed(),))?.extract(py)?;
                        if constr_id == self.primitive_ids.const_generic_marker {
                            is_const_generic = true;
                            continue;
@ -413,7 +417,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                            result.push(unifier.get_dummy_var().ty);
                        } else {
                            result.push({
-                                match self.get_pyty_obj_type(py, constr, unifier, defs, primitives)? {
+                                match self.get_pyty_obj_type(py, constr.as_borrowed(), unifier, defs, primitives)? {
                                    Ok((ty, _)) => {
                                        if unifier.is_concrete(ty, &[]) {
                                            ty
@ -464,22 +468,27 @@ impl InnerResolver {
        {
            let origin = self.helper.origin_ty_fn.call1(py, (pyty,))?;
            let args = self.helper.args_ty_fn.call1(py, (pyty,))?;
-            let args: &PyTuple = args.downcast(py)?;
+            let args = args.downcast_bound::<PyTuple>(py)?;
-            let origin_ty =
+            let origin_ty = match self.get_pyty_obj_type(
-                match self.get_pyty_obj_type(py, origin.as_ref(py), unifier, defs, primitives)? {
+                py,
-                    Ok((ty, false)) => ty,
+                origin.bind_borrowed(py),
-                    Ok((_, true)) => {
+                unifier,
-                        return Ok(Err("instantiated type does not take type parameters".into()))
+                defs,
-                    }
+                primitives,
-                    Err(err) => return Ok(Err(err)),
+            )? {
-                };
+                Ok((ty, false)) => ty,
                Ok((_, true)) => {
                    return Ok(Err("instantiated type does not take type parameters".into()))
                }
                Err(err) => return Ok(Err(err)),
            };
            match &*unifier.get_ty(origin_ty) {
                TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::List.id() => {
                    if args.len() == 1 {
                        let ty = match self.get_pyty_obj_type(
                            py,
-                            args.get_item(0)?,
+                            args.get_item(0)?.as_borrowed(),
                            unifier,
                            defs,
                            primitives,
@ -525,9 +534,15 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                    // npt.NDArray[T] == np.ndarray[Any, np.dtype[T]]
                    let ndarray_dtype_pyty =
                        self.helper.args_ty_fn.call1(py, (args.get_item(1)?,))?;
-                    let dtype = ndarray_dtype_pyty.downcast::<PyTuple>(py)?.get_item(0)?;
+                    let dtype = ndarray_dtype_pyty.downcast_bound::<PyTuple>(py)?.get_item(0)?;
-                    let ty = match self.get_pyty_obj_type(py, dtype, unifier, defs, primitives)? {
+                    let ty = match self.get_pyty_obj_type(
                        py,
                        dtype.as_borrowed(),
                        unifier,
                        defs,
                        primitives,
                    )? {
                        Ok(ty) => ty,
                        Err(err) => return Ok(Err(err)),
                    };
@ -543,7 +558,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                TypeEnum::TTuple { .. } => {
                    let args = match args
                        .iter()
-                        .map(|x| self.get_pyty_obj_type(py, x, unifier, defs, primitives))
+                        .map(|x| self.get_pyty_obj_type(py, x.as_borrowed(), unifier, defs, primitives))
                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?
                        .into_iter()
                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>() {
@ -576,7 +591,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                        }
                        let args = match args
                            .iter()
-                            .map(|x| self.get_pyty_obj_type(py, x, unifier, defs, primitives))
+                            .map(|x| self.get_pyty_obj_type(py, x.as_borrowed(), unifier, defs, primitives))
                            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?
                            .into_iter()
                            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>() {
@ -603,7 +618,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                    if args.len() == 1 {
                        let ty = match self.get_pyty_obj_type(
                            py,
-                            args.get_item(0)?,
+                            args.get_item(0)?.as_borrowed(),
                            unifier,
                            defs,
                            primitives,
@ -634,8 +649,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                false,
            )))
        } else {
-            let str_fn =
+            let str_fn = PyModule::import_bound(py, "builtins").unwrap().getattr("repr").unwrap();
                pyo3::types::PyModule::import(py, "builtins").unwrap().getattr("repr").unwrap();
            let str_repr: String = str_fn.call1((pyty,)).unwrap().extract().unwrap();
            Ok(Err(format!("{str_repr} is not registered with NAC3 (@nac3 decorator missing?)")))
        }
@ -644,7 +658,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
    pub fn get_obj_type(
        &self,
        py: Python,
-        obj: &PyAny,
+        obj: Borrowed<PyAny>,
        unifier: &mut Unifier,
        defs: &[Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>],
        primitives: &PrimitiveStore,
@ -691,7 +705,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                {
                    obj
                } else {
-                    ty.as_ref(py)
+                    ty.bind_borrowed(py)
                }
            },
            unifier,
@ -779,7 +793,8 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                    Ok(Ok(extracted_ty))
                } else {
                    let dtype = obj.getattr("dtype")?.getattr("type")?;
-                    let dtype_ty = self.get_pyty_obj_type(py, dtype, unifier, defs, primitives)?;
+                    let dtype_ty =
                        self.get_pyty_obj_type(py, dtype.as_borrowed(), unifier, defs, primitives)?;
                    match dtype_ty {
                        Ok((t, _)) => match unifier.unify(ty, t) {
                            Ok(()) => {
@ -798,10 +813,12 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                }
            }
            (TypeEnum::TTuple { .. }, false) => {
-                let elements: &PyTuple = obj.downcast()?;
+                let elements = obj.downcast::<PyTuple>()?;
                let types: Result<Result<Vec<_>, _>, _> = elements
                    .iter()
-                    .map(|elem| self.get_obj_type(py, elem, unifier, defs, primitives))
+                    .map(|elem| {
                        self.get_obj_type(py, elem.as_borrowed(), unifier, defs, primitives)
                    })
                    .collect();
                let types = types?;
                Ok(types.map(|types| {
@ -837,7 +854,13 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                    return Ok(Ok(unifier.subst(primitives.option, &var_map).unwrap()));
                }
-                let ty = match self.get_obj_type(py, field_data, unifier, defs, primitives)? {
+                let ty = match self.get_obj_type(
                    py,
                    field_data.as_borrowed(),
                    unifier,
                    defs,
                    primitives,
                )? {
                    Ok(t) => t,
                    Err(e) => {
                        return Ok(Err(format!(
@ -872,15 +895,20 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                            Ok(d) => d,
                            Err(e) => return Ok(Err(format!("{e}"))),
                        };
-                        let ty =
+                        let ty = match self.get_obj_type(
-                            match self.get_obj_type(py, field_data, unifier, defs, primitives)? {
+                            py,
-                                Ok(t) => t,
+                            field_data.as_borrowed(),
-                                Err(e) => {
+                            unifier,
-                                    return Ok(Err(format!(
+                            defs,
-                                        "error when getting type of field `{name}` ({e})"
+                            primitives,
-                                    )))
+                        )? {
-                                }
+                            Ok(t) => t,
-                            };
+                            Err(e) => {
                                return Ok(Err(format!(
                                    "error when getting type of field `{name}` ({e})"
                                )))
                            }
                        };
                        let field_ty = unifier.subst(field.1 .0, &var_map).unwrap_or(field.1 .0);
                        if let Err(e) = unifier.unify(ty, field_ty) {
                            // field type mismatch
@ -912,32 +940,32 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                // check integer bounds
                if unifier.unioned(extracted_ty, primitives.int32) {
                    obj.extract::<i32>().map_or_else(
-                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{obj} is not in the range of int32"))),
+                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{} is not in the range of int32", obj.as_unbound()))),
                        |_| Ok(Ok(extracted_ty)),
                    )
                } else if unifier.unioned(extracted_ty, primitives.int64) {
                    obj.extract::<i64>().map_or_else(
-                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{obj} is not in the range of int64"))),
+                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{} is not in the range of int64", obj.as_unbound()))),
                        |_| Ok(Ok(extracted_ty)),
                    )
                } else if unifier.unioned(extracted_ty, primitives.uint32) {
                    obj.extract::<u32>().map_or_else(
-                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{obj} is not in the range of uint32"))),
+                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{} is not in the range of uint32", obj.as_unbound()))),
                        |_| Ok(Ok(extracted_ty)),
                    )
                } else if unifier.unioned(extracted_ty, primitives.uint64) {
                    obj.extract::<u64>().map_or_else(
-                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{obj} is not in the range of uint64"))),
+                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{} is not in the range of uint64", obj.as_unbound()))),
                        |_| Ok(Ok(extracted_ty)),
                    )
                } else if unifier.unioned(extracted_ty, primitives.bool) {
                    obj.extract::<bool>().map_or_else(
-                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{obj} is not in the range of bool"))),
+                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{} is not in the range of bool", obj.as_unbound()))),
                        |_| Ok(Ok(extracted_ty)),
                    )
                } else if unifier.unioned(extracted_ty, primitives.float) {
                    obj.extract::<f64>().map_or_else(
-                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{obj} is not in the range of float64"))),
+                        |_| Ok(Err(format!("{} is not in the range of float64", obj.as_unbound()))),
                        |_| Ok(Ok(extracted_ty)),
                    )
                } else {
@ -950,7 +978,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
    pub fn get_obj_value<'ctx>(
        &self,
        py: Python,
-        obj: &PyAny,
+        obj: Borrowed<PyAny>,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
        expected_ty: Type,
@ -1020,15 +1048,19 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                    });
                    return Ok(Some(global.as_pointer_value().into()));
                }
-                self.global_value_ids.write().insert(id, obj.into());
+                self.global_value_ids.write().insert(id, obj.as_unbound().clone());
            }
            let arr: Result<Option<Vec<_>>, _> = (0..len)
                .map(|i| {
                    obj.get_item(i).and_then(|elem| {
-                        self.get_obj_value(py, elem, ctx, generator, elem_ty).map_err(|e| {
+                        self.get_obj_value(py, elem.as_borrowed(), ctx, generator, elem_ty).map_err(
-                            super::CompileError::new_err(format!("Error getting element {i}: {e}"))
+                            |e| {
-                        })
+                                super::CompileError::new_err(format!(
                                    "Error getting element {i}: {e}"
                                ))
                            },
                        )
                    })
                })
                .collect();
@ -1085,63 +1117,69 @@ impl InnerResolver {
            } else {
                unreachable!("must be ndarray")
            };
-            let (ndarray_dtype, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ndarray_ty);
+            let (ndarray_dtype, ndarray_ndims) =
                unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ndarray_ty);
            let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
            let llvm_pi8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
            let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
-            let llvm_ndarray = NDArrayType::from_unifier_type(generator, ctx, ndarray_ty);
+            let ndarray_dtype_llvm_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, ndarray_dtype);
-            let dtype = llvm_ndarray.element_type();
+            let ndarray_llvm_ty = NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, ndarray_dtype_llvm_ty);
            {
                if self.global_value_ids.read().contains_key(&id) {
                    let global = ctx.module.get_global(&id_str).unwrap_or_else(|| {
                        ctx.module.add_global(
-                            llvm_ndarray.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type(),
+                            ndarray_llvm_ty.as_underlying_type(),
                            Some(AddressSpace::default()),
                            &id_str,
                        )
                    });
                    return Ok(Some(global.as_pointer_value().into()));
                }
-                self.global_value_ids.write().insert(id, obj.into());
+                self.global_value_ids.write().insert(id, obj.as_unbound().clone());
            }
-            let ndims = llvm_ndarray.ndims().unwrap();
+            let TypeEnum::TLiteral { values, .. } = &*ctx.unifier.get_ty_immutable(ndarray_ndims)
            else {
                unreachable!("Expected Literal for ndarray_ndims")
            };
            let ndarray_ndims = if values.len() == 1 {
                values[0].clone()
            } else {
                todo!("Unpacking literal of more than one element unimplemented")
            };
            let Ok(ndarray_ndims) = u64::try_from(ndarray_ndims) else {
                unreachable!("Expected u64 value for ndarray_ndims")
            };
            // Obtain the shape of the ndarray
-            let shape_tuple: &PyTuple = obj.getattr("shape")?.downcast()?;
+            let shape_tuple = obj.getattr("shape")?;
-            assert_eq!(shape_tuple.len(), ndims as usize);
+            let shape_tuple = shape_tuple.downcast::<PyTuple>()?;
-
+            assert_eq!(shape_tuple.len(), ndarray_ndims as usize);
-            // The Rust type inferencer cannot figure this out
+            let shape_values: Result<Option<Vec<_>>, _> = shape_tuple
            let shape_values = shape_tuple
                .iter()
                .enumerate()
                .map(|(i, elem)| {
-                    let value = self
+                    self.get_obj_value(
-                        .get_obj_value(py, elem, ctx, generator, ctx.primitives.usize())
+                        py,
-                        .map_err(|e| {
+                        elem.as_borrowed(),
-                            super::CompileError::new_err(format!("Error getting element {i}: {e}"))
+                        ctx,
-                        })?
+                        generator,
-                        .unwrap();
+                        ctx.primitives.usize(),
-                    let value = value.into_int_value();
+                    )
-                    Ok(value)
+                    .map_err(|e| {
                        super::CompileError::new_err(format!("Error getting element {i}: {e}"))
                    })
                })
-                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, PyErr>>()?;
+                .collect();
-
+            let shape_values = shape_values?.unwrap();
-            // Also use this opportunity to get the constant values of `shape_values` for calculating strides.
+            let shape_values = llvm_usize.const_array(
-            let shape_u64s = shape_values
+                &shape_values.into_iter().map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value).collect_vec(),
-                .iter()
+            );
                .map(|dim| {
                    assert!(dim.is_const());
                    dim.get_zero_extended_constant().unwrap()
                })
                .collect_vec();
            let shape_values = llvm_usize.const_array(&shape_values);
            // create a global for ndarray.shape and initialize it using the shape
            let shape_global = ctx.module.add_global(
-                llvm_usize.array_type(ndims as u32),
+                llvm_usize.array_type(ndarray_ndims as u32),
                Some(AddressSpace::default()),
                &(id_str.clone() + ".shape"),
            );
@ -1149,25 +1187,20 @@ impl InnerResolver {
            // Obtain the (flattened) elements of the ndarray
            let sz: usize = obj.getattr("size")?.extract()?;
-            let data: Vec<_> = (0..sz)
+            let data: Result<Option<Vec<_>>, _> = (0..sz)
                .map(|i| {
                    obj.getattr("flat")?.get_item(i).and_then(|elem| {
-                        let value = self
+                        self.get_obj_value(py, elem.as_borrowed(), ctx, generator, ndarray_dtype)
                            .get_obj_value(py, elem, ctx, generator, ndarray_dtype)
                            .map_err(|e| {
                                super::CompileError::new_err(format!(
                                    "Error getting element {i}: {e}"
                                ))
-                            })?
+                            })
                            .unwrap();
                        assert_eq!(value.get_type(), dtype);
                        Ok(value)
                    })
                })
-                .try_collect()?;
+                .collect();
-            let data = data.into_iter();
+            let data = data?.unwrap().into_iter();
-            let data = match dtype {
+            let data = match ndarray_dtype_llvm_ty {
                BasicTypeEnum::ArrayType(ty) => {
                    ty.const_array(&data.map(BasicValueEnum::into_array_value).collect_vec())
                }
@ -1192,68 +1225,34 @@ impl InnerResolver {
            };
            // create a global for ndarray.data and initialize it using the elements
            //
            // NOTE: NDArray's `data` is `u8*`. Here, `data_global` is an array of `dtype`.
            // We will have to cast it to an `u8*` later.
            let data_global = ctx.module.add_global(
-                dtype.array_type(sz as u32),
+                ndarray_dtype_llvm_ty.array_type(sz as u32),
                Some(AddressSpace::default()),
                &(id_str.clone() + ".data"),
            );
            data_global.set_initializer(&data);
            // Get the constant itemsize.
            let itemsize = dtype.size_of().unwrap();
            let itemsize = itemsize.get_zero_extended_constant().unwrap();
            // Create the strides needed for ndarray.strides
            let strides = make_contiguous_strides(itemsize, ndims, &shape_u64s);
            let strides =
                strides.into_iter().map(|stride| llvm_usize.const_int(stride, false)).collect_vec();
            let strides = llvm_usize.const_array(&strides);
            // create a global for ndarray.strides and initialize it
            let strides_global = ctx.module.add_global(
                llvm_i8.array_type(ndims as u32),
                Some(AddressSpace::default()),
                &format!("${id_str}.strides"),
            );
            strides_global.set_initializer(&strides);
            // create a global for the ndarray object and initialize it
            let value = ndarray_llvm_ty.as_underlying_type().const_named_struct(&[
                llvm_usize.const_int(ndarray_ndims, false).into(),
                shape_global
                    .as_pointer_value()
                    .const_cast(llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))
                    .into(),
                data_global
                    .as_pointer_value()
                    .const_cast(ndarray_dtype_llvm_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))
                    .into(),
            ]);
-            // NOTE: data_global is an array of dtype, we want a `u8*`.
+            let ndarray = ctx.module.add_global(
-            let ndarray_data = data_global.as_pointer_value();
+                ndarray_llvm_ty.as_underlying_type(),
            let ndarray_data = ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(ndarray_data, llvm_pi8, "").unwrap();
            let ndarray_itemsize = llvm_usize.const_int(itemsize, false);
            let ndarray_ndims = llvm_usize.const_int(ndims, false);
            let ndarray_shape = shape_global.as_pointer_value();
            let ndarray_strides = strides_global.as_pointer_value();
            let ndarray = llvm_ndarray
                .as_base_type()
                .get_element_type()
                .into_struct_type()
                .const_named_struct(&[
                    ndarray_itemsize.into(),
                    ndarray_ndims.into(),
                    ndarray_shape.into(),
                    ndarray_strides.into(),
                    ndarray_data.into(),
                ]);
            let ndarray_global = ctx.module.add_global(
                llvm_ndarray.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type(),
                Some(AddressSpace::default()),
                &id_str,
            );
-            ndarray_global.set_initializer(&ndarray);
+            ndarray.set_initializer(&value);
-            Ok(Some(ndarray_global.as_pointer_value().into()))
+            Ok(Some(ndarray.as_pointer_value().into()))
        } else if ty_id == self.primitive_ids.tuple {
            let expected_ty_enum = ctx.unifier.get_ty_immutable(expected_ty);
            let TypeEnum::TTuple { ty, is_vararg_ctx: false } = expected_ty_enum.as_ref() else {
@ -1261,14 +1260,14 @@ impl InnerResolver {
            };
            let tup_tys = ty.iter();
-            let elements: &PyTuple = obj.downcast()?;
+            let elements = obj.downcast::<PyTuple>()?;
            assert_eq!(elements.len(), tup_tys.len());
            let val: Result<Option<Vec<_>>, _> = elements
                .iter()
                .enumerate()
                .zip(tup_tys)
                .map(|((i, elem), ty)| {
-                    self.get_obj_value(py, elem, ctx, generator, *ty).map_err(|e| {
+                    self.get_obj_value(py, elem.as_borrowed(), ctx, generator, *ty).map_err(|e| {
                        super::CompileError::new_err(format!("Error getting element {i}: {e}"))
                    })
                })
@ -1297,7 +1296,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                match self
                    .get_obj_value(
                        py,
-                        obj.getattr("_nac3_option").unwrap(),
+                        obj.getattr("_nac3_option").unwrap().as_borrowed(),
                        ctx,
                        generator,
                        option_val_ty,
@ -1321,7 +1320,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                                    });
                                return Ok(Some(global.as_pointer_value().into()));
                            }
-                            self.global_value_ids.write().insert(id, obj.into());
+                            self.global_value_ids.write().insert(id, obj.as_unbound().clone());
                        }
                        let global = ctx.module.add_global(
                            v.get_type(),
@ -1357,7 +1356,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                    });
                    return Ok(Some(global.as_pointer_value().into()));
                }
-                self.global_value_ids.write().insert(id, obj.into());
+                self.global_value_ids.write().insert(id, obj.as_unbound().clone());
            }
            // should be classes
            let definition =
@ -1369,7 +1368,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
                .map(|(name, ty, _)| {
                    self.get_obj_value(
                        py,
-                        obj.getattr(name.to_string().as_str())?,
+                        obj.getattr(name.to_string().as_str())?.as_borrowed(),
                        ctx,
                        generator,
                        *ty,
@ -1396,7 +1395,7 @@ impl InnerResolver {
    fn get_default_param_obj_value(
        &self,
        py: Python,
-        obj: &PyAny,
+        obj: Borrowed<PyAny>,
    ) -> PyResult<Result<SymbolValue, String>> {
        let id: u64 = self.helper.id_fn.call1(py, (obj,))?.extract(py)?;
        let ty_id: u64 =
@ -1423,16 +1422,21 @@ impl InnerResolver {
            let val: f64 = obj.extract()?;
            Ok(SymbolValue::Double(val))
        } else if ty_id == self.primitive_ids.tuple {
-            let elements: &PyTuple = obj.downcast()?;
+            let elements = obj.downcast::<PyTuple>()?;
-            let elements: Result<Result<Vec<_>, String>, _> =
+            let elements: Result<Result<Vec<_>, String>, _> = elements
-                elements.iter().map(|elem| self.get_default_param_obj_value(py, elem)).collect();
+                .iter()
                .map(|elem| self.get_default_param_obj_value(py, elem.as_borrowed()))
                .collect();
            elements?.map(SymbolValue::Tuple)
        } else if ty_id == self.primitive_ids.option {
            if id == self.primitive_ids.none {
                Ok(SymbolValue::OptionNone)
            } else {
-                self.get_default_param_obj_value(py, obj.getattr("_nac3_option").unwrap())?
+                self.get_default_param_obj_value(
-                    .map(|v| SymbolValue::OptionSome(Box::new(v)))
+                    py,
                    obj.getattr("_nac3_option").unwrap().as_borrowed(),
                )?
                .map(|v| SymbolValue::OptionSome(Box::new(v)))
            }
        } else {
            Err("only primitives values, option and tuple can be default parameter value".into())
@ -1447,13 +1451,14 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
        };
        Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<Option<SymbolValue>> {
-            let obj: &PyAny = self.0.module.extract(py)?;
+            let obj = self.0.module.downcast_bound::<PyAny>(py)?;
-            let members: &PyDict = obj.getattr("__dict__").unwrap().downcast().unwrap();
+            let members = obj.getattr("__dict__").unwrap();
            let members = members.downcast::<PyDict>().unwrap();
            let mut sym_value = None;
            for (key, val) in members {
                let key: &str = key.extract()?;
                if key == id.to_string() {
-                    if let Ok(Ok(v)) = self.0.get_default_param_obj_value(py, val) {
+                    if let Ok(Ok(v)) = self.0.get_default_param_obj_value(py, val.as_borrowed()) {
                        sym_value = Some(v);
                    }
                    break;
@ -1487,13 +1492,20 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
                Ok(t)
            } else {
                Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<Result<Type, String>> {
-                    let obj: &PyAny = self.0.module.extract(py)?;
+                    let obj = self.0.module.downcast_bound::<PyAny>(py)?;
                    let mut sym_ty = Err(format!("cannot find symbol `{str}`"));
-                    let members: &PyDict = obj.getattr("__dict__").unwrap().downcast().unwrap();
+                    let members = obj.getattr("__dict__").unwrap();
                    let members = members.downcast::<PyDict>().unwrap();
                    for (key, val) in members {
                        let key: &str = key.extract()?;
                        if key == str.to_string() {
-                            sym_ty = self.0.get_obj_type(py, val, unifier, defs, primitives)?;
+                            sym_ty = self.0.get_obj_type(
                                py,
                                val.as_borrowed(),
                                unifier,
                                defs,
                                primitives,
                            )?;
                            break;
                        }
                    }
@ -1514,7 +1526,6 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
        &self,
        id: StrRef,
        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
    ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>> {
        let sym_value = {
            let id_to_val = self.0.id_to_pyval.read();
@ -1522,13 +1533,15 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
        }
        .or_else(|| {
            Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<Option<(u64, PyObject)>> {
-                let obj: &PyAny = self.0.module.extract(py)?;
+                let obj = self.0.module.downcast_bound::<PyAny>(py)?;
                let mut sym_value: Option<(u64, PyObject)> = None;
-                let members: &PyDict = obj.getattr("__dict__").unwrap().downcast().unwrap();
+                let members = obj.getattr("__dict__").unwrap();
                let members = members.downcast::<PyDict>().unwrap();
                for (key, val) in members {
                    let key: &str = key.extract()?;
                    if key == id.to_string() {
-                        let id = self.0.helper.id_fn.call1(py, (val,))?.extract(py)?;
+                        let id =
                            self.0.helper.id_fn.call1(py, (val.as_borrowed(),))?.extract(py)?;
                        sym_value = Some((id, val.extract()?));
                        break;
                    }
@ -1576,7 +1589,10 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
        if let Some(id) = string_store.get(s) {
            *id
        } else {
-            let id = i32::try_from(string_store.len()).unwrap();
+            let id = Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<i32> {
                self.0.helper.store_str.call1(py, (s,))?.extract(py)
            })
            .unwrap();
            string_store.insert(s.into(), id);
            id
        }
@ -1594,10 +1610,16 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
            let store = self.0.deferred_eval_store.store.read();
            Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<Result<(), String>> {
                for (variables, constraints, name) in store.iter() {
-                    let constraints: &PyAny = constraints.as_ref(py);
+                    let constraints = constraints.bind(py);
                    for (i, var) in variables.iter().enumerate() {
                        if let Ok(constr) = constraints.get_item(i) {
-                            match self.0.get_pyty_obj_type(py, constr, unifier, defs, primitives)? {
+                            match self.0.get_pyty_obj_type(
                                py,
                                constr.as_borrowed(),
                                unifier,
                                defs,
                                primitives,
                            )? {
                                Ok((ty, _)) => {
                                    if !unifier.is_concrete(ty, &[]) {
                                        return Ok(Err(format!(
--- a/nac3artiq/src/timeline.rs
+++ b/nac3artiq/src/timeline.rs
@ -1,11 +1,8 @@
 use itertools::Either;
-
+use nac3core::codegen::CodeGenContext;
-use nac3core::{
+use nac3core::inkwell::{
-    codegen::CodeGenContext,
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue},
-    inkwell::{
+    AddressSpace, AtomicOrdering,
        values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue},
        AddressSpace, AtomicOrdering,
    },
 };
 /// Functions for manipulating the timeline.
--- a/nac3ast/Cargo.toml
+++ b/nac3ast/Cargo.toml
@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ constant-optimization = ["fold"]
 fold = []
 [dependencies]
 lazy_static = "1.5"
 parking_lot = "0.12"
 string-interner = "0.17"
 fxhash = "0.2"
--- a/nac3ast/src/ast_gen.rs
+++ b/nac3ast/src/ast_gen.rs
@ -5,12 +5,14 @@ pub use crate::location::Location;
 use fxhash::FxBuildHasher;
 use parking_lot::{Mutex, MutexGuard};
-use std::{cell::RefCell, collections::HashMap, fmt, sync::LazyLock};
+use std::{cell::RefCell, collections::HashMap, fmt};
 use string_interner::{symbol::SymbolU32, DefaultBackend, StringInterner};
 pub type Interner = StringInterner<DefaultBackend, FxBuildHasher>;
-static INTERNER: LazyLock<Mutex<Interner>> =
+lazy_static! {
-    LazyLock::new(|| Mutex::new(StringInterner::with_hasher(FxBuildHasher::default())));
+    static ref INTERNER: Mutex<Interner> =
        Mutex::new(StringInterner::with_hasher(FxBuildHasher::default()));
 }
 thread_local! {
    static LOCAL_INTERNER: RefCell<HashMap<String, StrRef>> = RefCell::default();
--- a/nac3ast/src/lib.rs
+++ b/nac3ast/src/lib.rs
@ -1,4 +1,10 @@
-#![deny(future_incompatible, let_underscore, nonstandard_style, clippy::all)]
+#![deny(
    future_incompatible,
    let_underscore,
    nonstandard_style,
    rust_2024_compatibility,
    clippy::all
 )]
 #![warn(clippy::pedantic)]
 #![allow(
    clippy::missing_errors_doc,
@ -8,6 +14,9 @@
    clippy::wildcard_imports
 )]
 #[macro_use]
 extern crate lazy_static;
 mod ast_gen;
 mod constant;
 #[cfg(feature = "fold")]
--- a/nac3core/Cargo.toml
+++ b/nac3core/Cargo.toml
@ -5,17 +5,14 @@ authors = ["M-Labs"]
 edition = "2021"
 [features]
 default = ["derive"]
 derive = ["dep:nac3core_derive"]
 no-escape-analysis = []
 [dependencies]
 itertools = "0.13"
 crossbeam = "0.8"
-indexmap = "2.6"
+indexmap = "2.2"
 parking_lot = "0.12"
-rayon = "1.10"
+rayon = "1.8"
 nac3core_derive = { path = "nac3core_derive", optional = true }
 nac3parser = { path = "../nac3parser" }
 strum = "0.26"
 strum_macros = "0.26"
--- a/nac3core/build.rs
+++ b/nac3core/build.rs
@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
 use regex::Regex;
 use std::{
    env,
    fs::File,
@ -6,8 +7,6 @@ use std::{
    process::{Command, Stdio},
 };
 use regex::Regex;
 fn main() {
    let out_dir = env::var("OUT_DIR").unwrap();
    let out_dir = Path::new(&out_dir);
@ -56,8 +55,9 @@ fn main() {
    let output = Command::new("clang-irrt")
        .args(flags)
        .output()
-        .inspect(|o| {
+        .map(|o| {
            assert!(o.status.success(), "{}", std::str::from_utf8(&o.stderr).unwrap());
            o
        })
        .unwrap();
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt.cpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt.cpp
@ -1,10 +1,6 @@
 #include "irrt/exception.hpp"
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
 #include "irrt/list.hpp"
 #include "irrt/math.hpp"
 #include "irrt/ndarray.hpp"
 #include "irrt/range.hpp"
 #include "irrt/slice.hpp"
 #include "irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp"
 #include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
 #include "irrt/ndarray/iter.hpp"
 #include "irrt/ndarray/indexing.hpp"
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/cslice.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/cslice.hpp
@ -4,6 +4,6 @@
 template<typename SizeT>
 struct CSlice {
-    void* base;
+    uint8_t* base;
    SizeT len;
 };
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/exception.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/exception.hpp
@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 /**
 * @brief The int type of ARTIQ exception IDs.
 */
-using ExceptionId = int32_t;
+typedef int32_t ExceptionId;
 /*
 * Set of exceptions C++ IRRT can use.
@ -55,14 +55,11 @@ void _raise_exception_helper(ExceptionId id,
                             int64_t param2) {
    Exception<SizeT> e = {
        .id = id,
-        .filename = {.base = reinterpret_cast<void*>(const_cast<char*>(filename)),
+        .filename = {.base = reinterpret_cast<const uint8_t*>(filename), .len = __builtin_strlen(filename)},
                     .len = static_cast<SizeT>(__builtin_strlen(filename))},
        .line = line,
        .column = 0,
-        .function = {.base = reinterpret_cast<void*>(const_cast<char*>(function)),
+        .function = {.base = reinterpret_cast<const uint8_t*>(function), .len = __builtin_strlen(function)},
-                     .len = static_cast<SizeT>(__builtin_strlen(function))},
+        .msg = {.base = reinterpret_cast<const uint8_t*>(msg), .len = __builtin_strlen(msg)},
        .msg = {.base = reinterpret_cast<void*>(const_cast<char*>(msg)),
                .len = static_cast<SizeT>(__builtin_strlen(msg))},
    };
    e.params[0] = param0;
    e.params[1] = param1;
@ -70,7 +67,6 @@ void _raise_exception_helper(ExceptionId id,
    __nac3_raise(reinterpret_cast<void*>(&e));
    __builtin_unreachable();
 }
 }  // namespace
 /**
 * @brief Raise an exception with location details (location in the IRRT source files).
@ -83,3 +79,4 @@ void _raise_exception_helper(ExceptionId id,
 */
 #define raise_exception(SizeT, id, msg, param0, param1, param2) \
    _raise_exception_helper<SizeT>(id, __FILE__, __LINE__, __FUNCTION__, msg, param0, param1, param2)
 }  // namespace
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/int_types.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/int_types.hpp
@ -8,20 +8,15 @@ using uint32_t = unsigned _BitInt(32);
 using int64_t = _BitInt(64);
 using uint64_t = unsigned _BitInt(64);
 #else
 #pragma clang diagnostic push
 #pragma clang diagnostic ignored "-Wdeprecated-type"
 using int8_t = _ExtInt(8);
 using uint8_t = unsigned _ExtInt(8);
 using int32_t = _ExtInt(32);
 using uint32_t = unsigned _ExtInt(32);
 using int64_t = _ExtInt(64);
 using uint64_t = unsigned _ExtInt(64);
 #pragma clang diagnostic pop
 #endif
 // NDArray indices are always `uint32_t`.
-using NDIndexInt = uint32_t;
+using NDIndex = uint32_t;
 // The type of an index or a value describing the length of a range/slice is always `int32_t`.
 using SliceIndex = int32_t;
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/list.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/list.hpp
@ -13,12 +13,12 @@ extern "C" {
 SliceIndex __nac3_list_slice_assign_var_size(SliceIndex dest_start,
                                             SliceIndex dest_end,
                                             SliceIndex dest_step,
-                                             void* dest_arr,
+                                             uint8_t* dest_arr,
                                             SliceIndex dest_arr_len,
                                             SliceIndex src_start,
                                             SliceIndex src_end,
                                             SliceIndex src_step,
-                                             void* src_arr,
+                                             uint8_t* src_arr,
                                             SliceIndex src_arr_len,
                                             const SliceIndex size) {
    /* if dest_arr_len == 0, do nothing since we do not support extending list */
@ -29,13 +29,11 @@ SliceIndex __nac3_list_slice_assign_var_size(SliceIndex dest_start,
        const SliceIndex src_len = (src_end >= src_start) ? (src_end - src_start + 1) : 0;
        const SliceIndex dest_len = (dest_end >= dest_start) ? (dest_end - dest_start + 1) : 0;
        if (src_len > 0) {
-            __builtin_memmove(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_start * size,
+            __builtin_memmove(dest_arr + dest_start * size, src_arr + src_start * size, src_len * size);
                              static_cast<uint8_t*>(src_arr) + src_start * size, src_len * size);
        }
        if (dest_len > 0) {
            /* dropping */
-            __builtin_memmove(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + (dest_start + src_len) * size,
+            __builtin_memmove(dest_arr + (dest_start + src_len) * size, dest_arr + (dest_end + 1) * size,
                              static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + (dest_end + 1) * size,
                              (dest_arr_len - dest_end - 1) * size);
        }
        /* shrink size */
@ -46,7 +44,7 @@ SliceIndex __nac3_list_slice_assign_var_size(SliceIndex dest_start,
                          && !(max(dest_start, dest_end) < min(src_start, src_end)
                               || max(src_start, src_end) < min(dest_start, dest_end));
    if (need_alloca) {
-        void* tmp = __builtin_alloca(src_arr_len * size);
+        uint8_t* tmp = reinterpret_cast<uint8_t*>(__builtin_alloca(src_arr_len * size));
        __builtin_memcpy(tmp, src_arr, src_arr_len * size);
        src_arr = tmp;
    }
@ -55,24 +53,20 @@ SliceIndex __nac3_list_slice_assign_var_size(SliceIndex dest_start,
    for (; (src_step > 0) ? (src_ind <= src_end) : (src_ind >= src_end); src_ind += src_step, dest_ind += dest_step) {
        /* for constant optimization */
        if (size == 1) {
-            __builtin_memcpy(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_ind, static_cast<uint8_t*>(src_arr) + src_ind, 1);
+            __builtin_memcpy(dest_arr + dest_ind, src_arr + src_ind, 1);
        } else if (size == 4) {
-            __builtin_memcpy(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_ind * 4,
+            __builtin_memcpy(dest_arr + dest_ind * 4, src_arr + src_ind * 4, 4);
                             static_cast<uint8_t*>(src_arr) + src_ind * 4, 4);
        } else if (size == 8) {
-            __builtin_memcpy(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_ind * 8,
+            __builtin_memcpy(dest_arr + dest_ind * 8, src_arr + src_ind * 8, 8);
                             static_cast<uint8_t*>(src_arr) + src_ind * 8, 8);
        } else {
            /* memcpy for var size, cannot overlap after previous alloca */
-            __builtin_memcpy(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_ind * size,
+            __builtin_memcpy(dest_arr + dest_ind * size, src_arr + src_ind * size, size);
                             static_cast<uint8_t*>(src_arr) + src_ind * size, size);
        }
    }
    /* only dest_step == 1 can we shrink the dest list. */
    /* size should be ensured prior to calling this function */
    if (dest_step == 1 && dest_end >= dest_start) {
-        __builtin_memmove(static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + dest_ind * size,
+        __builtin_memmove(dest_arr + dest_ind * size, dest_arr + (dest_end + 1) * size,
                          static_cast<uint8_t*>(dest_arr) + (dest_end + 1) * size,
                          (dest_arr_len - dest_end - 1) * size);
        return dest_arr_len - (dest_end - dest_ind) - 1;
    }
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/math.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/math.hpp
@ -90,4 +90,4 @@ double __nac3_j0(double x) {
    return j0(x);
 }
-}  // namespace
+}
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray.hpp
@ -2,8 +2,6 @@
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
 // TODO: To be deleted since NDArray with strides is done.
 namespace {
 template<typename SizeT>
 SizeT __nac3_ndarray_calc_size_impl(const SizeT* list_data, SizeT list_len, SizeT begin_idx, SizeT end_idx) {
@ -19,7 +17,7 @@ SizeT __nac3_ndarray_calc_size_impl(const SizeT* list_data, SizeT list_len, Size
 }
 template<typename SizeT>
-void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(SizeT index, const SizeT* dims, SizeT num_dims, NDIndexInt* idxs) {
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(SizeT index, const SizeT* dims, SizeT num_dims, NDIndex* idxs) {
    SizeT stride = 1;
    for (SizeT dim = 0; dim < num_dims; dim++) {
        SizeT i = num_dims - dim - 1;
@ -30,10 +28,7 @@ void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(SizeT index, const SizeT* dims, SizeT n
 }
 template<typename SizeT>
-SizeT __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(const SizeT* dims,
+SizeT __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(const SizeT* dims, SizeT num_dims, const NDIndex* indices, SizeT num_indices) {
                                        SizeT num_dims,
                                        const NDIndexInt* indices,
                                        SizeT num_indices) {
    SizeT idx = 0;
    SizeT stride = 1;
    for (SizeT i = 0; i < num_dims; ++i) {
@ -80,8 +75,8 @@ void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_impl(const SizeT* lhs_dims,
 template<typename SizeT>
 void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx_impl(const SizeT* src_dims,
                                            SizeT src_ndims,
-                                            const NDIndexInt* in_idx,
+                                            const NDIndex* in_idx,
-                                            NDIndexInt* out_idx) {
+                                            NDIndex* out_idx) {
    for (SizeT i = 0; i < src_ndims; ++i) {
        SizeT src_i = src_ndims - i - 1;
        out_idx[src_i] = src_dims[src_i] == 1 ? 0 : in_idx[src_i];
@ -99,23 +94,21 @@ __nac3_ndarray_calc_size64(const uint64_t* list_data, uint64_t list_len, uint64_
    return __nac3_ndarray_calc_size_impl(list_data, list_len, begin_idx, end_idx);
 }
-void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices(uint32_t index, const uint32_t* dims, uint32_t num_dims, NDIndexInt* idxs) {
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices(uint32_t index, const uint32_t* dims, uint32_t num_dims, NDIndex* idxs) {
    __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(index, dims, num_dims, idxs);
 }
-void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices64(uint64_t index, const uint64_t* dims, uint64_t num_dims, NDIndexInt* idxs) {
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices64(uint64_t index, const uint64_t* dims, uint64_t num_dims, NDIndex* idxs) {
    __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(index, dims, num_dims, idxs);
 }
 uint32_t
-__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index(const uint32_t* dims, uint32_t num_dims, const NDIndexInt* indices, uint32_t num_indices) {
+__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index(const uint32_t* dims, uint32_t num_dims, const NDIndex* indices, uint32_t num_indices) {
    return __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(dims, num_dims, indices, num_indices);
 }
-uint64_t __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index64(const uint64_t* dims,
+uint64_t
-                                        uint64_t num_dims,
+__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index64(const uint64_t* dims, uint64_t num_dims, const NDIndex* indices, uint64_t num_indices) {
                                        const NDIndexInt* indices,
                                        uint64_t num_indices) {
    return __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(dims, num_dims, indices, num_indices);
 }
@ -137,15 +130,15 @@ void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast64(const uint64_t* lhs_dims,
 void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx(const uint32_t* src_dims,
                                       uint32_t src_ndims,
-                                       const NDIndexInt* in_idx,
+                                       const NDIndex* in_idx,
-                                       NDIndexInt* out_idx) {
+                                       NDIndex* out_idx) {
    __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx_impl(src_dims, src_ndims, in_idx, out_idx);
 }
 void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx64(const uint64_t* src_dims,
                                         uint64_t src_ndims,
-                                         const NDIndexInt* in_idx,
+                                         const NDIndex* in_idx,
-                                         NDIndexInt* out_idx) {
+                                         NDIndex* out_idx) {
    __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx_impl(src_dims, src_ndims, in_idx, out_idx);
 }
-}  // namespace
+}
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp
@ -1,342 +0,0 @@
 #pragma once
 #include "irrt/debug.hpp"
 #include "irrt/exception.hpp"
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
 #include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
 namespace {
 namespace ndarray {
 namespace basic {
 /**
 * @brief Assert that `shape` does not contain negative dimensions.
 *
 * @param ndims Number of dimensions in `shape`
 * @param shape The shape to check on
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 void assert_shape_no_negative(SizeT ndims, const SizeT* shape) {
    for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++) {
        if (shape[axis] < 0) {
            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR,
                            "negative dimensions are not allowed; axis {0} "
                            "has dimension {1}",
                            axis, shape[axis], NO_PARAM);
        }
    }
 }
 /**
 * @brief Assert that two shapes are the same in the context of writing output to an ndarray.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 void assert_output_shape_same(SizeT ndarray_ndims,
                              const SizeT* ndarray_shape,
                              SizeT output_ndims,
                              const SizeT* output_shape) {
    if (ndarray_ndims != output_ndims) {
        // There is no corresponding NumPy error message like this.
        raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "Cannot write output of ndims {0} to an ndarray with ndims {1}",
                        output_ndims, ndarray_ndims, NO_PARAM);
    }
    for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndarray_ndims; axis++) {
        if (ndarray_shape[axis] != output_shape[axis]) {
            // There is no corresponding NumPy error message like this.
            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR,
                            "Mismatched dimensions on axis {0}, output has "
                            "dimension {1}, but destination ndarray has dimension {2}.",
                            axis, output_shape[axis], ndarray_shape[axis]);
        }
    }
 }
 /**
 * @brief Return the number of elements of an ndarray given its shape.
 *
 * @param ndims Number of dimensions in `shape`
 * @param shape The shape of the ndarray
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 SizeT calc_size_from_shape(SizeT ndims, const SizeT* shape) {
    SizeT size = 1;
    for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++)
        size *= shape[axis];
    return size;
 }
 /**
 * @brief Compute the array indices of the `nth` (0-based) element of an ndarray given only its shape.
 *
 * @param ndims Number of elements in `shape` and `indices`
 * @param shape The shape of the ndarray
 * @param indices The returned indices indexing the ndarray with shape `shape`.
 * @param nth The index of the element of interest.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 void set_indices_by_nth(SizeT ndims, const SizeT* shape, SizeT* indices, SizeT nth) {
    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++) {
        SizeT axis = ndims - i - 1;
        SizeT dim = shape[axis];
        indices[axis] = nth % dim;
        nth /= dim;
    }
 }
 /**
 * @brief Return the number of elements of an `ndarray`
 *
 * This function corresponds to `<an_ndarray>.size`
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 SizeT size(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
    return calc_size_from_shape(ndarray->ndims, ndarray->shape);
 }
 /**
 * @brief Return of the number of its content of an `ndarray`.
 *
 * This function corresponds to `<an_ndarray>.nbytes`.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 SizeT nbytes(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
    return size(ndarray) * ndarray->itemsize;
 }
 /**
 * @brief Get the `len()` of an ndarray, and asserts that `ndarray` is a sized object.
 *
 * This function corresponds to `<an_ndarray>.__len__`.
 *
 * @param dst_length The length.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 SizeT len(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
    if (ndarray->ndims != 0) {
        return ndarray->shape[0];
    }
    // numpy prohibits `__len__` on unsized objects
    raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_TYPE_ERROR, "len() of unsized object", NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
    __builtin_unreachable();
 }
 /**
 * @brief Return a boolean indicating if `ndarray` is (C-)contiguous.
 *
 * You may want to see ndarray's rules for C-contiguity:
 * https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/df256d0d2f3bc6833699529824781c58f9c6e697/numpy/core/src/multiarray/flagsobject.c#L95C1-L99C45
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 bool is_c_contiguous(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
    // References:
    // - tinynumpy's implementation:
    // https://github.com/wadetb/tinynumpy/blob/0d23d22e07062ffab2afa287374c7b366eebdda1/tinynumpy/tinynumpy.py#L102
    // - ndarray's flags["C_CONTIGUOUS"]:
    // https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.flags.html#numpy.ndarray.flags
    // - ndarray's rules for C-contiguity:
    // https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/df256d0d2f3bc6833699529824781c58f9c6e697/numpy/core/src/multiarray/flagsobject.c#L95C1-L99C45
    // From
    // https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/df256d0d2f3bc6833699529824781c58f9c6e697/numpy/core/src/multiarray/flagsobject.c#L95C1-L99C45:
    //
    // The traditional rule is that for an array to be flagged as C contiguous,
    // the following must hold:
    //
    // strides[-1] == itemsize
    // strides[i] == shape[i+1] * strides[i + 1]
    // [...]
    // According to these rules, a 0- or 1-dimensional array is either both
    // C- and F-contiguous, or neither; and an array with 2+ dimensions
    // can be C- or F- contiguous, or neither, but not both. Though there
    // there are exceptions for arrays with zero or one item, in the first
    // case the check is relaxed up to and including the first dimension
    // with shape[i] == 0. In the second case `strides == itemsize` will
    // can be true for all dimensions and both flags are set.
    if (ndarray->ndims == 0) {
        return true;
    }
    if (ndarray->strides[ndarray->ndims - 1] != ndarray->itemsize) {
        return false;
    }
    for (SizeT i = 1; i < ndarray->ndims; i++) {
        SizeT axis_i = ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
        if (ndarray->strides[axis_i] != ndarray->shape[axis_i + 1] * ndarray->strides[axis_i + 1]) {
            return false;
        }
    }
    return true;
 }
 /**
 * @brief Return the pointer to the element indexed by `indices` along the ndarray's axes.
 *
 * This function does no bound check.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 void* get_pelement_by_indices(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, const SizeT* indices) {
    void* element = ndarray->data;
    for (SizeT dim_i = 0; dim_i < ndarray->ndims; dim_i++)
        element = static_cast<uint8_t*>(element) + indices[dim_i] * ndarray->strides[dim_i];
    return element;
 }
 /**
 * @brief Return the pointer to the nth (0-based) element of `ndarray` in flattened view.
 *
 * This function does no bound check.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 void* get_nth_pelement(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, SizeT nth) {
    void* element = ndarray->data;
    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndarray->ndims; i++) {
        SizeT axis = ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
        SizeT dim = ndarray->shape[axis];
        element = static_cast<uint8_t*>(element) + ndarray->strides[axis] * (nth % dim);
        nth /= dim;
    }
    return element;
 }
 /**
 * @brief Update the strides of an ndarray given an ndarray `shape` to be contiguous.
 *
 * You might want to read https://ajcr.net/stride-guide-part-1/.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 void set_strides_by_shape(NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
    SizeT stride_product = 1;
    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndarray->ndims; i++) {
        SizeT axis = ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
        ndarray->strides[axis] = stride_product * ndarray->itemsize;
        stride_product *= ndarray->shape[axis];
    }
 }
 /**
 * @brief Set an element in `ndarray`.
 *
 * @param pelement Pointer to the element in `ndarray` to be set.
 * @param pvalue Pointer to the value `pelement` will be set to.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 void set_pelement_value(NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, void* pelement, const void* pvalue) {
    __builtin_memcpy(pelement, pvalue, ndarray->itemsize);
 }
 /**
 * @brief Copy data from one ndarray to another of the exact same size and itemsize.
 *
 * Both ndarrays will be viewed in their flatten views when copying the elements.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 void copy_data(const NDArray<SizeT>* src_ndarray, NDArray<SizeT>* dst_ndarray) {
    // TODO: Make this faster with memcpy when we see a contiguous segment.
    // TODO: Handle overlapping.
    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, src_ndarray->itemsize, dst_ndarray->itemsize);
    for (SizeT i = 0; i < size(src_ndarray); i++) {
        auto src_element = ndarray::basic::get_nth_pelement(src_ndarray, i);
        auto dst_element = ndarray::basic::get_nth_pelement(dst_ndarray, i);
        ndarray::basic::set_pelement_value(dst_ndarray, dst_element, src_element);
    }
 }
 }  // namespace basic
 }  // namespace ndarray
 }  // namespace
 extern "C" {
 using namespace ndarray::basic;
 void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative(int32_t ndims, int32_t* shape) {
    assert_shape_no_negative(ndims, shape);
 }
 void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative64(int64_t ndims, int64_t* shape) {
    assert_shape_no_negative(ndims, shape);
 }
 void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same(int32_t ndarray_ndims,
                                                  const int32_t* ndarray_shape,
                                                  int32_t output_ndims,
                                                  const int32_t* output_shape) {
    assert_output_shape_same(ndarray_ndims, ndarray_shape, output_ndims, output_shape);
 }
 void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same64(int64_t ndarray_ndims,
                                                    const int64_t* ndarray_shape,
                                                    int64_t output_ndims,
                                                    const int64_t* output_shape) {
    assert_output_shape_same(ndarray_ndims, ndarray_shape, output_ndims, output_shape);
 }
 uint32_t __nac3_ndarray_size(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
    return size(ndarray);
 }
 uint64_t __nac3_ndarray_size64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
    return size(ndarray);
 }
 uint32_t __nac3_ndarray_nbytes(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
    return nbytes(ndarray);
 }
 uint64_t __nac3_ndarray_nbytes64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
    return nbytes(ndarray);
 }
 int32_t __nac3_ndarray_len(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
    return len(ndarray);
 }
 int64_t __nac3_ndarray_len64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
    return len(ndarray);
 }
 bool __nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
    return is_c_contiguous(ndarray);
 }
 bool __nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
    return is_c_contiguous(ndarray);
 }
 void* __nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement(const NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray, int32_t nth) {
    return get_nth_pelement(ndarray, nth);
 }
 void* __nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement64(const NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray, int64_t nth) {
    return get_nth_pelement(ndarray, nth);
 }
 void* __nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices(const NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray, int32_t* indices) {
    return get_pelement_by_indices(ndarray, indices);
 }
 void* __nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices64(const NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray, int64_t* indices) {
    return get_pelement_by_indices(ndarray, indices);
 }
 void __nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
    set_strides_by_shape(ndarray);
 }
 void __nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
    set_strides_by_shape(ndarray);
 }
 void __nac3_ndarray_copy_data(NDArray<int32_t>* src_ndarray, NDArray<int32_t>* dst_ndarray) {
    copy_data(src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
 }
 void __nac3_ndarray_copy_data64(NDArray<int64_t>* src_ndarray, NDArray<int64_t>* dst_ndarray) {
    copy_data(src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
 }
 }
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/def.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/def.hpp
@ -1,51 +0,0 @@
 #pragma once
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
 namespace {
 /**
 * @brief The NDArray object
 *
 * Official numpy implementation:
 * https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/735a477f0bc2b5b84d0e72d92f224bde78d4e069/doc/source/reference/c-api/types-and-structures.rst#pyarrayinterface
 *
 * Note that this implementation is based on `PyArrayInterface` rather of `PyArrayObject`. The
 * difference between `PyArrayInterface` and `PyArrayObject` (relevant to our implementation) is
 * that `PyArrayInterface` *has* `itemsize` and uses `void*` for its `data`, whereas `PyArrayObject`
 * does not require `itemsize` (probably using `strides[-1]` instead) and uses `char*` for its
 * `data`. There are also minor differences in the struct layout.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 struct NDArray {
    /**
     * @brief The number of bytes of a single element in `data`.
     */
    SizeT itemsize;
    /**
     * @brief The number of dimensions of this shape.
     */
    SizeT ndims;
    /**
     * @brief The NDArray shape, with length equal to `ndims`.
     *
     * Note that it may contain 0.
     */
    SizeT* shape;
    /**
     * @brief Array strides, with length equal to `ndims`
     *
     * The stride values are in units of bytes, not number of elements.
     *
     * Note that `strides` can have negative values or contain 0.
     */
    SizeT* strides;
    /**
     * @brief The underlying data this `ndarray` is pointing to.
     */
    void* data;
 };
 }  // namespace
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/indexing.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/indexing.hpp
@ -1,220 +0,0 @@
 #pragma once
 #include "irrt/exception.hpp"
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
 #include "irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp"
 #include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
 #include "irrt/range.hpp"
 #include "irrt/slice.hpp"
 namespace {
 typedef uint8_t NDIndexType;
 /**
 * @brief A single element index
 *
 * `data` points to a `int32_t`.
 */
 const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_SINGLE_ELEMENT = 0;
 /**
 * @brief A slice index
 *
 * `data` points to a `Slice<int32_t>`.
 */
 const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_SLICE = 1;
 /**
 * @brief `np.newaxis` / `None`
 *
 * `data` is unused.
 */
 const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_NEWAXIS = 2;
 /**
 * @brief `Ellipsis` / `...`
 *
 * `data` is unused.
 */
 const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_ELLIPSIS = 3;
 /**
 * @brief An index used in ndarray indexing
 *
 * That is:
 * ```
 * my_ndarray[::-1, 3, ..., np.newaxis]
 *            ^^^^  ^  ^^^  ^^^^^^^^^^ each of these is represented by an NDIndex.
 * ```
 */
 struct NDIndex {
    /**
     * @brief Enum tag to specify the type of index.
     *
     * Please see the comment of each enum constant.
     */
    NDIndexType type;
    /**
     * @brief The accompanying data associated with `type`.
     *
     * Please see the comment of each enum constant.
     */
    uint8_t* data;
 };
 }  // namespace
 namespace {
 namespace ndarray {
 namespace indexing {
 /**
 * @brief Perform ndarray "basic indexing" (https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.indexing.html#basic-indexing)
 *
 * This function is very similar to performing `dst_ndarray = src_ndarray[indices]` in Python.
 *
 * This function also does proper assertions on `indices` to check for out of bounds access and more.
 *
 * # Notes on `dst_ndarray`
 * The caller is responsible for allocating space for the resulting ndarray.
 * Here is what this function expects from `dst_ndarray` when called:
 *   - `dst_ndarray->data` does not have to be initialized.
 *   - `dst_ndarray->itemsize` does not have to be initialized.
 *   - `dst_ndarray->ndims` must be initialized, and it must be equal to the expected `ndims` of the `dst_ndarray` after
 *       indexing `src_ndarray` with `indices`.
 *   - `dst_ndarray->shape` must be allocated, through it can contain uninitialized values.
 *   - `dst_ndarray->strides` must be allocated, through it can contain uninitialized values.
 * When this function call ends:
 *   - `dst_ndarray->data` is set to `src_ndarray->data`.
 *   - `dst_ndarray->itemsize` is set to `src_ndarray->itemsize`.
 *   - `dst_ndarray->ndims` is unchanged.
 *   - `dst_ndarray->shape` is updated according to how `src_ndarray` is indexed.
 *   - `dst_ndarray->strides` is updated accordingly by how ndarray indexing works.
 *
 * @param indices indices to index `src_ndarray`, ordered in the same way you would write them in Python.
 * @param src_ndarray The NDArray to be indexed.
 * @param dst_ndarray The resulting NDArray after indexing. Further details in the comments above,
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 void index(SizeT num_indices, const NDIndex* indices, const NDArray<SizeT>* src_ndarray, NDArray<SizeT>* dst_ndarray) {
    // Validate `indices`.
    // Expected value of `dst_ndarray->ndims`.
    SizeT expected_dst_ndims = src_ndarray->ndims;
    // To check for "too many indices for array: array is ?-dimensional, but ? were indexed"
    SizeT num_indexed = 0;
    // There may be ellipsis `...` in `indices`. There can only be 0 or 1 ellipsis.
    SizeT num_ellipsis = 0;
    for (SizeT i = 0; i < num_indices; i++) {
        if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SINGLE_ELEMENT) {
            expected_dst_ndims--;
            num_indexed++;
        } else if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SLICE) {
            num_indexed++;
        } else if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_NEWAXIS) {
            expected_dst_ndims++;
        } else if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_ELLIPSIS) {
            num_ellipsis++;
            if (num_ellipsis > 1) {
                raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_INDEX_ERROR, "an index can only have a single ellipsis ('...')", NO_PARAM,
                                NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
            }
        } else {
            __builtin_unreachable();
        }
    }
    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, expected_dst_ndims, dst_ndarray->ndims);
    if (src_ndarray->ndims - num_indexed < 0) {
        raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_INDEX_ERROR,
                        "too many indices for array: array is {0}-dimensional, "
                        "but {1} were indexed",
                        src_ndarray->ndims, num_indices, NO_PARAM);
    }
    dst_ndarray->data = src_ndarray->data;
    dst_ndarray->itemsize = src_ndarray->itemsize;
    // Reference code:
    // https://github.com/wadetb/tinynumpy/blob/0d23d22e07062ffab2afa287374c7b366eebdda1/tinynumpy/tinynumpy.py#L652
    SizeT src_axis = 0;
    SizeT dst_axis = 0;
    for (int32_t i = 0; i < num_indices; i++) {
        const NDIndex* index = &indices[i];
        if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SINGLE_ELEMENT) {
            SizeT input = (SizeT) * ((int32_t*)index->data);
            SizeT k = slice::resolve_index_in_length(src_ndarray->shape[src_axis], input);
            if (k == -1) {
                raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_INDEX_ERROR,
                                "index {0} is out of bounds for axis {1} "
                                "with size {2}",
                                input, src_axis, src_ndarray->shape[src_axis]);
            }
            dst_ndarray->data = static_cast<uint8_t*>(dst_ndarray->data) + k * src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
            src_axis++;
        } else if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SLICE) {
            Slice<int32_t>* slice = (Slice<int32_t>*)index->data;
            Range<int32_t> range = slice->indices_checked<SizeT>(src_ndarray->shape[src_axis]);
            dst_ndarray->data = static_cast<uint8_t*>(dst_ndarray->data) + (SizeT)range.start * src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
            dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = ((SizeT)range.step) * src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
            dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = (SizeT)range.len<SizeT>();
            dst_axis++;
            src_axis++;
        } else if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_NEWAXIS) {
            dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = 0;
            dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = 1;
            dst_axis++;
        } else if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_ELLIPSIS) {
            // The number of ':' entries this '...' implies.
            SizeT ellipsis_size = src_ndarray->ndims - num_indexed;
            for (SizeT j = 0; j < ellipsis_size; j++) {
                dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
                dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->shape[src_axis];
                dst_axis++;
                src_axis++;
            }
        } else {
            __builtin_unreachable();
        }
    }
    for (; dst_axis < dst_ndarray->ndims; dst_axis++, src_axis++) {
        dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->shape[src_axis];
        dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
    }
    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, src_ndarray->ndims, src_axis);
    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, dst_ndarray->ndims, dst_axis);
 }
 }  // namespace indexing
 }  // namespace ndarray
 }  // namespace
 extern "C" {
 using namespace ndarray::indexing;
 void __nac3_ndarray_index(int32_t num_indices,
                          NDIndex* indices,
                          NDArray<int32_t>* src_ndarray,
                          NDArray<int32_t>* dst_ndarray) {
    index(num_indices, indices, src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
 }
 void __nac3_ndarray_index64(int64_t num_indices,
                            NDIndex* indices,
                            NDArray<int64_t>* src_ndarray,
                            NDArray<int64_t>* dst_ndarray) {
    index(num_indices, indices, src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
 }
 }
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/iter.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/iter.hpp
@ -1,146 +0,0 @@
 #pragma once
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
 #include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
 namespace {
 /**
 * @brief Helper struct to enumerate through an ndarray *efficiently*.
 *
 * Example usage (in pseudo-code):
 * ```
 * // Suppose my_ndarray has been initialized, with shape [2, 3] and dtype `double`
 * NDIter nditer;
 * nditer.initialize(my_ndarray);
 * while (nditer.has_element()) {
 *    // This body is run 6 (= my_ndarray.size) times.
 *
 *    // [0, 0] -> [0, 1] -> [0, 2] -> [1, 0] -> [1, 1] -> [1, 2] -> end
 *    print(nditer.indices);
 *
 *    // 0 -> 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5
 *    print(nditer.nth);
 *
 *    // <1st element> -> <2nd element> -> ... -> <6th element> -> end
 *    print(*((double *) nditer.element))
 *
 *    nditer.next(); // Go to next element.
 * }
 * ```
 *
 * Interesting cases:
 * - If `my_ndarray.ndims` == 0, there is one iteration.
 * - If `my_ndarray.shape` contains zeroes, there are no iterations.
 */
 template<typename SizeT>
 struct NDIter {
    // Information about the ndarray being iterated over.
    SizeT ndims;
    SizeT* shape;
    SizeT* strides;
    /**
     * @brief The current indices.
     *
     * Must be allocated by the caller.
     */
    SizeT* indices;
    /**
     * @brief The nth (0-based) index of the current indices.
     *
     * Initially this is 0.
     */
    SizeT nth;
    /**
     * @brief Pointer to the current element.
     *
     * Initially this points to first element of the ndarray.
     */
    void* element;
    /**
     * @brief Cache for the product of shape.
     *
     * Could be 0 if `shape` has 0s in it.
     */
    SizeT size;
    void initialize(SizeT ndims, SizeT* shape, SizeT* strides, void* element, SizeT* indices) {
        this->ndims = ndims;
        this->shape = shape;
        this->strides = strides;
        this->indices = indices;
        this->element = element;
        // Compute size
        this->size = 1;
        for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++) {
            this->size *= shape[i];
        }
        // `indices` starts on all 0s.
        for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++)
            indices[axis] = 0;
        nth = 0;
    }
    void initialize_by_ndarray(NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, SizeT* indices) {
        // NOTE: ndarray->data is pointing to the first element, and `NDIter`'s `element` should also point to the first
        // element as well.
        this->initialize(ndarray->ndims, ndarray->shape, ndarray->strides, ndarray->data, indices);
    }
    // Is the current iteration valid?
    // If true, then `element`, `indices` and `nth` contain details about the current element.
    bool has_element() { return nth < size; }
    // Go to the next element.
    void next() {
        for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++) {
            SizeT axis = ndims - i - 1;
            indices[axis]++;
            if (indices[axis] >= shape[axis]) {
                indices[axis] = 0;
                // TODO: There is something called backstrides to speedup iteration.
                // See https://ajcr.net/stride-guide-part-1/, and
                // https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy-1.13.0/reference/c-api.types-and-structures.html#c.PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.backstrides.
                element = static_cast<void*>(reinterpret_cast<uint8_t*>(element) - strides[axis] * (shape[axis] - 1));
            } else {
                element = static_cast<void*>(reinterpret_cast<uint8_t*>(element) + strides[axis]);
                break;
            }
        }
        nth++;
    }
 };
 }  // namespace
 extern "C" {
 void __nac3_nditer_initialize(NDIter<int32_t>* iter, NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray, int32_t* indices) {
    iter->initialize_by_ndarray(ndarray, indices);
 }
 void __nac3_nditer_initialize64(NDIter<int64_t>* iter, NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray, int64_t* indices) {
    iter->initialize_by_ndarray(ndarray, indices);
 }
 bool __nac3_nditer_has_element(NDIter<int32_t>* iter) {
    return iter->has_element();
 }
 bool __nac3_nditer_has_element64(NDIter<int64_t>* iter) {
    return iter->has_element();
 }
 void __nac3_nditer_next(NDIter<int32_t>* iter) {
    iter->next();
 }
 void __nac3_nditer_next64(NDIter<int64_t>* iter) {
    iter->next();
 }
 }
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/range.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/range.hpp
@ -1,47 +0,0 @@
 #pragma once
 #include "irrt/debug.hpp"
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
 namespace {
 namespace range {
 template<typename T>
 T len(T start, T stop, T step) {
    // Reference:
    // https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/9dbd12375561a393eaec4b21ee4ac568a407cdb0/Objects/rangeobject.c#L933
    if (step > 0 && start < stop)
        return 1 + (stop - 1 - start) / step;
    else if (step < 0 && start > stop)
        return 1 + (start - 1 - stop) / (-step);
    else
        return 0;
 }
 }  // namespace range
 /**
 * @brief A Python range.
 */
 template<typename T>
 struct Range {
    T start;
    T stop;
    T step;
    /**
     * @brief Calculate the `len()` of this range.
     */
    template<typename SizeT>
    T len() {
        debug_assert(SizeT, step != 0);
        return range::len(start, stop, step);
    }
 };
 }  // namespace
 extern "C" {
 using namespace range;
 SliceIndex __nac3_range_slice_len(const SliceIndex start, const SliceIndex end, const SliceIndex step) {
    return len(start, end, step);
 }
 }
--- a/nac3core/irrt/irrt/slice.hpp
+++ b/nac3core/irrt/irrt/slice.hpp
@ -1,145 +1,6 @@
 #pragma once
 #include "irrt/debug.hpp"
 #include "irrt/exception.hpp"
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
 #include "irrt/math_util.hpp"
 #include "irrt/range.hpp"
 namespace {
 namespace slice {
 /**
 * @brief Resolve a possibly negative index in a list of a known length.
 *
 * Returns -1 if the resolved index is out of the list's bounds.
 */
 template<typename T>
 T resolve_index_in_length(T length, T index) {
    T resolved = index < 0 ? length + index : index;
    if (0 <= resolved && resolved < length) {
        return resolved;
    } else {
        return -1;
    }
 }
 /**
 * @brief Resolve a slice as a range.
 *
 * This is equivalent to `range(*slice(start, stop, step).indices(length))` in Python.
 */
 template<typename T>
 void indices(bool start_defined,
             T start,
             bool stop_defined,
             T stop,
             bool step_defined,
             T step,
             T length,
             T* range_start,
             T* range_stop,
             T* range_step) {
    // Reference: https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Objects/sliceobject.c#L388
    *range_step = step_defined ? step : 1;
    bool step_is_negative = *range_step < 0;
    T lower, upper;
    if (step_is_negative) {
        lower = -1;
        upper = length - 1;
    } else {
        lower = 0;
        upper = length;
    }
    if (start_defined) {
        *range_start = start < 0 ? max(lower, start + length) : min(upper, start);
    } else {
        *range_start = step_is_negative ? upper : lower;
    }
    if (stop_defined) {
        *range_stop = stop < 0 ? max(lower, stop + length) : min(upper, stop);
    } else {
        *range_stop = step_is_negative ? lower : upper;
    }
 }
 }  // namespace slice
 /**
 * @brief A Python-like slice with **unresolved** indices.
 */
 template<typename T>
 struct Slice {
    bool start_defined;
    T start;
    bool stop_defined;
    T stop;
    bool step_defined;
    T step;
    Slice() { this->reset(); }
    void reset() {
        this->start_defined = false;
        this->stop_defined = false;
        this->step_defined = false;
    }
    void set_start(T start) {
        this->start_defined = true;
        this->start = start;
    }
    void set_stop(T stop) {
        this->stop_defined = true;
        this->stop = stop;
    }
    void set_step(T step) {
        this->step_defined = true;
        this->step = step;
    }
    /**
     * @brief Resolve this slice as a range.
     *
     * In Python, this would be `range(*slice(start, stop, step).indices(length))`.
     */
    template<typename SizeT>
    Range<T> indices(T length) {
        // Reference:
        // https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Objects/sliceobject.c#L388
        debug_assert(SizeT, length >= 0);
        Range<T> result;
        slice::indices(start_defined, start, stop_defined, stop, step_defined, step, length, &result.start,
                       &result.stop, &result.step);
        return result;
    }
    /**
     * @brief Like `.indices()` but with assertions.
     */
    template<typename SizeT>
    Range<T> indices_checked(T length) {
        // TODO: Switch to `SizeT length`
        if (length < 0) {
            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "length should not be negative, got {0}", length, NO_PARAM,
                            NO_PARAM);
        }
        if (this->step_defined && this->step == 0) {
            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "slice step cannot be zero", NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
        }
        return this->indices<SizeT>(length);
    }
 };
 }  // namespace
 extern "C" {
 SliceIndex __nac3_slice_index_bound(SliceIndex i, const SliceIndex len) {
@ -153,4 +14,15 @@ SliceIndex __nac3_slice_index_bound(SliceIndex i, const SliceIndex len) {
    }
    return i;
 }
 SliceIndex __nac3_range_slice_len(const SliceIndex start, const SliceIndex end, const SliceIndex step) {
    SliceIndex diff = end - start;
    if (diff > 0 && step > 0) {
        return ((diff - 1) / step) + 1;
    } else if (diff < 0 && step < 0) {
        return ((diff + 1) / step) + 1;
    } else {
        return 0;
    }
 }
 }
--- a/nac3core/nac3core_derive/Cargo.toml
+++ b/nac3core/nac3core_derive/Cargo.toml
@ -1,21 +0,0 @@
 [package]
 name = "nac3core_derive"
 version = "0.1.0"
 edition = "2021"
 [lib]
 proc-macro = true
 [[test]]
 name = "structfields_tests"
 path = "tests/structfields_test.rs"
 [dev-dependencies]
 nac3core = { path = ".." }
 trybuild = { version = "1.0", features = ["diff"] }
 [dependencies]
 proc-macro2 = "1.0"
 proc-macro-error = "1.0"
 syn = "2.0"
 quote = "1.0"
--- a/nac3core/nac3core_derive/src/lib.rs
+++ b/nac3core/nac3core_derive/src/lib.rs
@ -1,320 +0,0 @@
 use proc_macro::TokenStream;
 use proc_macro_error::{abort, proc_macro_error};
 use quote::quote;
 use syn::{
    parse_macro_input, spanned::Spanned, Data, DataStruct, Expr, ExprField, ExprMethodCall,
    ExprPath, GenericArgument, Ident, LitStr, Path, PathArguments, Type, TypePath,
 };
 /// Extracts all generic arguments of a [`Type`] into a [`Vec`].
 ///
 /// Returns [`Some`] of a possibly-empty [`Vec`] if the path of `ty` matches with
 /// `expected_ty_name`, otherwise returns [`None`].
 fn extract_generic_args(expected_ty_name: &'static str, ty: &Type) -> Option<Vec<GenericArgument>> {
    let Type::Path(TypePath { qself: None, path, .. }) = ty else {
        return None;
    };
    let segments = &path.segments;
    if segments.len() != 1 {
        return None;
    };
    let segment = segments.iter().next().unwrap();
    if segment.ident != expected_ty_name {
        return None;
    }
    let PathArguments::AngleBracketed(path_args) = &segment.arguments else {
        return Some(Vec::new());
    };
    let args = &path_args.args;
    Some(args.iter().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>())
 }
 /// Maps a `path` matching one of the `target_idents` into the `replacement` [`Ident`].
 fn map_path_to_ident(path: &Path, target_idents: &[&str], replacement: &str) -> Option<Ident> {
    path.require_ident()
        .ok()
        .filter(|ident| target_idents.iter().any(|target| ident == target))
        .map(|ident| Ident::new(replacement, ident.span()))
 }
 /// Extracts the left-hand side of a dot-expression.
 fn extract_dot_operand(expr: &Expr) -> Option<&Expr> {
    match expr {
        Expr::MethodCall(ExprMethodCall { receiver: operand, .. })
        | Expr::Field(ExprField { base: operand, .. }) => Some(operand),
        _ => None,
    }
 }
 /// Replaces the top-level receiver of a dot-expression with an [`Ident`], returning `Some(&mut expr)` if the
 /// replacement is performed.
 ///
 /// The top-level receiver is the left-most receiver expression, e.g. the top-level receiver of `a.b.c.foo()` is `a`.
 fn replace_top_level_receiver(expr: &mut Expr, ident: Ident) -> Option<&mut Expr> {
    if let Expr::MethodCall(ExprMethodCall { receiver: operand, .. })
    | Expr::Field(ExprField { base: operand, .. }) = expr
    {
        return if extract_dot_operand(operand).is_some() {
            if replace_top_level_receiver(operand, ident).is_some() {
                Some(expr)
            } else {
                None
            }
        } else {
            *operand = Box::new(Expr::Path(ExprPath {
                attrs: Vec::default(),
                qself: None,
                path: ident.into(),
            }));
            Some(expr)
        };
    }
    None
 }
 /// Iterates all operands to the left-hand side of the `.` of an [expression][`Expr`], i.e. the container operand of all
 /// [`Expr::Field`] and the receiver operand of all [`Expr::MethodCall`].
 ///
 /// The iterator will return the operand expressions in reverse order of appearance. For example, `a.b.c.func()` will
 /// return `vec![c, b, a]`.
 fn iter_dot_operands(expr: &Expr) -> impl Iterator<Item = &Expr> {
    let mut o = extract_dot_operand(expr);
    std::iter::from_fn(move || {
        let this = o;
        o = o.as_ref().and_then(|o| extract_dot_operand(o));
        this
    })
 }
 /// Normalizes a value expression for use when creating an instance of this structure, returning a
 /// [`proc_macro2::TokenStream`] of tokens representing the normalized expression.
 fn normalize_value_expr(expr: &Expr) -> proc_macro2::TokenStream {
    match &expr {
        Expr::Path(ExprPath { qself: None, path, .. }) => {
            if let Some(ident) = map_path_to_ident(path, &["usize", "size_t"], "llvm_usize") {
                quote! { #ident }
            } else {
                abort!(
                    path,
                    format!(
                        "Expected one of `size_t`, `usize`, or an implicit call expression in #[value_type(...)], found {}", 
                        quote!(#expr).to_string(),
                    )
                )
            }
        }
        Expr::Call(_) => {
            quote! { ctx.#expr }
        }
        Expr::MethodCall(_) => {
            let base_receiver = iter_dot_operands(expr).last();
            match base_receiver {
                // `usize.{...}`, `size_t.{...}` -> Rewrite the identifiers to `llvm_usize`
                Some(Expr::Path(ExprPath { qself: None, path, .. }))
                    if map_path_to_ident(path, &["usize", "size_t"], "llvm_usize").is_some() =>
                {
                    let ident =
                        map_path_to_ident(path, &["usize", "size_t"], "llvm_usize").unwrap();
                    let mut expr = expr.clone();
                    let expr = replace_top_level_receiver(&mut expr, ident).unwrap();
                    quote!(#expr)
                }
                // `ctx.{...}`, `context.{...}` -> Rewrite the identifiers to `ctx`
                Some(Expr::Path(ExprPath { qself: None, path, .. }))
                    if map_path_to_ident(path, &["ctx", "context"], "ctx").is_some() =>
                {
                    let ident = map_path_to_ident(path, &["ctx", "context"], "ctx").unwrap();
                    let mut expr = expr.clone();
                    let expr = replace_top_level_receiver(&mut expr, ident).unwrap();
                    quote!(#expr)
                }
                // No reserved identifier prefix -> Prepend `ctx.` to the entire expression
                _ => quote! { ctx.#expr },
            }
        }
        _ => {
            abort!(
                expr,
                format!(
                    "Expected one of `size_t`, `usize`, or an implicit call expression in #[value_type(...)], found {}", 
                    quote!(#expr).to_string(),
                )
            )
        }
    }
 }
 /// Derives an implementation of `codegen::types::structure::StructFields`.
 ///
 /// The benefit of using `#[derive(StructFields)]` is that all index- or order-dependent logic required by
 /// `impl StructFields` is automatically generated by this implementation, including the field index as required by
 /// `StructField::new` and the fields as returned by `StructFields::to_vec`.
 ///
 /// # Prerequisites
 ///
 /// In order to derive from [`StructFields`], you must implement (or derive) [`Eq`] and [`Copy`] as required by
 /// `StructFields`.
 ///
 /// Moreover, `#[derive(StructFields)]` can only be used for `struct`s with named fields, and may only contain fields
 /// with either `StructField` or [`PhantomData`] types.
 ///
 /// # Attributes for [`StructFields`]
 ///
 /// Each `StructField` field must be declared with the `#[value_type(...)]` attribute. The argument of `value_type`
 /// accepts one of the following:
 ///
 /// - An expression returning an instance of `inkwell::types::BasicType` (with or without the receiver `ctx`/`context`).
 /// For example, `context.i8_type()`, `ctx.i8_type()`, and `i8_type()` all refer to `i8`.
 /// - The reserved identifiers `usize` and `size_t` referring to an `inkwell::types::IntType` of the platform-dependent
 /// integer size. `usize` and `size_t` can also be used as the receiver to other method calls, e.g.
 /// `usize.array_type(3)`.
 ///
 /// # Example
 ///
 /// The following is an example of an LLVM slice implemented using `#[derive(StructFields)]`.
 ///
 /// ```rust,ignore
 /// use nac3core::{
 ///     codegen::types::structure::StructField,
 ///     inkwell::{
 ///         values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
 ///         AddressSpace,
 ///     },
 /// };
 /// use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 ///
 /// // All classes that implement StructFields must also implement Eq and Copy
 /// #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 /// pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
 ///     // Declares ptr have a value type of i8*
 ///     //
 ///     // Can also be written as `ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(...)` or `context.i8_type().ptr_type(...)`
 ///     #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
 ///     ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
 ///
 ///     // Declares len have a value type of usize, depending on the target compilation platform
 ///     #[value_type(usize)]
 ///     len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
 /// }
 /// ```
 #[proc_macro_derive(StructFields, attributes(value_type))]
 #[proc_macro_error]
 pub fn derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
    let input = parse_macro_input!(input as syn::DeriveInput);
    let ident = &input.ident;
    let Data::Struct(DataStruct { fields, .. }) = &input.data else {
        abort!(input, "Only structs with named fields are supported");
    };
    if let Err(err_span) =
        fields
            .iter()
            .try_for_each(|field| if field.ident.is_some() { Ok(()) } else { Err(field.span()) })
    {
        abort!(err_span, "Only structs with named fields are supported");
    };
    // Check if struct<'ctx>
    if input.generics.params.len() != 1 {
        abort!(input.generics, "Expected exactly 1 generic parameter")
    }
    let phantom_info = fields
        .iter()
        .filter(|field| extract_generic_args("PhantomData", &field.ty).is_some())
        .map(|field| field.ident.as_ref().unwrap())
        .cloned()
        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
    let field_info = fields
        .iter()
        .filter(|field| extract_generic_args("PhantomData", &field.ty).is_none())
        .map(|field| {
            let ident = field.ident.as_ref().unwrap();
            let ty = &field.ty;
            let Some(_) = extract_generic_args("StructField", ty) else {
                abort!(field, "Only StructField and PhantomData are allowed")
            };
            let attrs = &field.attrs;
            let Some(value_type_attr) =
                attrs.iter().find(|attr| attr.path().is_ident("value_type"))
            else {
                abort!(field, "Expected #[value_type(...)] attribute for field");
            };
            let Ok(value_type_expr) = value_type_attr.parse_args::<Expr>() else {
                abort!(value_type_attr, "Expected expression in #[value_type(...)]");
            };
            let value_expr_toks = normalize_value_expr(&value_type_expr);
            (ident.clone(), value_expr_toks)
        })
        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
    // `<*>::new` impl of `StructField` and `PhantomData` for `StructFields::new`
    let phantoms_create = phantom_info
        .iter()
        .map(|id| quote! { #id: ::std::marker::PhantomData })
        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
    let fields_create = field_info
        .iter()
        .map(|(id, ty)| {
            let id_lit = LitStr::new(&id.to_string(), id.span());
            quote! {
                #id: ::nac3core::codegen::types::structure::StructField::create(
                    &mut counter,
                    #id_lit,
                    #ty,
                )
            }
        })
        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
    // `.into()` impl of `StructField` for `StructFields::to_vec`
    let fields_into =
        field_info.iter().map(|(id, _)| quote! { self.#id.into() }).collect::<Vec<_>>();
    let impl_block = quote! {
        impl<'ctx> ::nac3core::codegen::types::structure::StructFields<'ctx> for #ident<'ctx> {
            fn new(ctx: impl ::nac3core::inkwell::context::AsContextRef<'ctx>, llvm_usize: ::nac3core::inkwell::types::IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
                let ctx = unsafe { ::nac3core::inkwell::context::ContextRef::new(ctx.as_ctx_ref()) };
                let mut counter = ::nac3core::codegen::types::structure::FieldIndexCounter::default();
                #ident {
                    #(#fields_create),*
                    #(#phantoms_create),*
                }
            }
            fn to_vec(&self) -> ::std::vec::Vec<(&'static str, ::nac3core::inkwell::types::BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)> {
                vec![
                    #(#fields_into),*
                ]
            }
        }
    };
    impl_block.into()
 }
--- a/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_empty.rs
+++ b/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_empty.rs
@ -1,9 +0,0 @@
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 use std::marker::PhantomData;
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct EmptyValue<'ctx> {
    _phantom: PhantomData<&'ctx ()>,
 }
 fn main() {}
--- a/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_ndarray.rs
+++ b/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_ndarray.rs
@ -1,20 +0,0 @@
 use nac3core::{
    codegen::types::structure::StructField,
    inkwell::{
        values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
        AddressSpace,
    },
 };
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    #[value_type(usize)]
    ndims: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    shape: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    data: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 fn main() {}
--- a/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice.rs
+++ b/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice.rs
@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
 use nac3core::{
    codegen::types::structure::StructField,
    inkwell::{
        values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
        AddressSpace,
    },
 };
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize)]
    len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 fn main() {}
--- a/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice_context.rs
+++ b/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice_context.rs
@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
 use nac3core::{
    codegen::types::structure::StructField,
    inkwell::{
        values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
        AddressSpace,
    },
 };
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
    #[value_type(context.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize)]
    len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 fn main() {}
--- a/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice_ctx.rs
+++ b/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice_ctx.rs
@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
 use nac3core::{
    codegen::types::structure::StructField,
    inkwell::{
        values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
        AddressSpace,
    },
 };
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
    #[value_type(ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize)]
    len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 fn main() {}
--- a/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice_sizet.rs
+++ b/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_slice_sizet.rs
@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
 use nac3core::{
    codegen::types::structure::StructField,
    inkwell::{
        values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
        AddressSpace,
    },
 };
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(size_t)]
    len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 fn main() {}
--- a/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_test.rs
+++ b/nac3core/nac3core_derive/tests/structfields_test.rs
@ -1,10 +0,0 @@
 #[test]
 fn test_parse_empty() {
    let t = trybuild::TestCases::new();
    t.pass("tests/structfields_empty.rs");
    t.pass("tests/structfields_slice.rs");
    t.pass("tests/structfields_slice_ctx.rs");
    t.pass("tests/structfields_slice_context.rs");
    t.pass("tests/structfields_slice_sizet.rs");
    t.pass("tests/structfields_ndarray.rs");
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/builtin_fns.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/builtin_fns.rs
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/classes.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/classes.rs
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/concrete_type.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/concrete_type.rs
@ -1,9 +1,3 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use nac3parser::ast::StrRef;
 use crate::{
    symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
    toplevel::DefinitionId,
@ -15,6 +9,10 @@ use crate::{
    },
 };
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use nac3parser::ast::StrRef;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 pub struct ConcreteTypeStore {
    store: Vec<ConcreteTypeEnum>,
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/expr.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/expr.rs
@ -1,50 +1,28 @@
 use std::{
    cmp::min,
    collections::HashMap,
    convert::TryInto,
    iter::{once, repeat, repeat_with, zip},
 };
 use inkwell::{
    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
    types::{AnyType, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FunctionValue, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue},
    AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
 };
 use itertools::{chain, izip, Either, Itertools};
 use nac3parser::ast::{
    self, Boolop, Cmpop, Comprehension, Constant, Expr, ExprKind, Location, Operator, StrRef,
    Unaryop,
 };
 use super::{
    concrete_type::{ConcreteFuncArg, ConcreteTypeEnum, ConcreteTypeStore},
    gen_in_range_check, get_llvm_abi_type, get_llvm_type, get_va_count_arg_name,
    irrt::*,
    llvm_intrinsics::{
        call_expect, call_float_floor, call_float_pow, call_float_powi, call_int_smax,
        call_int_umin, call_memcpy_generic,
    },
    macros::codegen_unreachable,
    need_sret, numpy,
    stmt::{
        gen_for_callback_incrementing, gen_if_callback, gen_if_else_expr_callback, gen_raise,
        gen_var,
    },
    types::{ndarray::NDArrayType, ListType},
    values::{
        ndarray::{NDArrayValue, RustNDIndex},
        ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ListValue, ProxyValue, RangeValue,
        TypedArrayLikeAccessor, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
    },
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenTask, CodeGenerator,
 };
 use crate::{
    codegen::{
        classes::{
            ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ListType, ListValue, NDArrayValue, ProxyType,
            ProxyValue, RangeValue, TypedArrayLikeAccessor, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
        },
        concrete_type::{ConcreteFuncArg, ConcreteTypeEnum, ConcreteTypeStore},
        gen_in_range_check, get_llvm_abi_type, get_llvm_type, get_va_count_arg_name,
        irrt::*,
        llvm_intrinsics::{
            call_expect, call_float_floor, call_float_pow, call_float_powi, call_int_smax,
            call_int_umin, call_memcpy_generic,
        },
        macros::codegen_unreachable,
        need_sret, numpy,
        stmt::{
            gen_for_callback_incrementing, gen_if_callback, gen_if_else_expr_callback, gen_raise,
            gen_var,
        },
        CodeGenContext, CodeGenTask, CodeGenerator,
    },
    symbol_resolver::{SymbolValue, ValueEnum},
    toplevel::{
-        helper::{extract_ndims, PrimDef},
+        helper::PrimDef,
-        numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys,
+        numpy::{make_ndarray_ty, unpack_ndarray_var_tys},
        DefinitionId, TopLevelDef,
    },
    typecheck::{
@ -52,6 +30,20 @@ use crate::{
        typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, TypeVarId, Unifier, VarMap},
    },
 };
 use inkwell::{
    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
    types::{AnyType, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FunctionValue, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue},
    AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
 };
 use itertools::{chain, izip, Either, Itertools};
 use nac3parser::ast::{
    self, Boolop, Cmpop, Comprehension, Constant, Expr, ExprKind, Location, Operator, StrRef,
    Unaryop,
 };
 use std::cmp::min;
 use std::iter::{repeat, repeat_with};
 use std::{collections::HashMap, convert::TryInto, iter::once, iter::zip};
 pub fn get_subst_key(
    unifier: &mut Unifier,
@ -979,7 +971,6 @@ pub fn gen_call<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
            TopLevelDef::Class { .. } => {
                return Ok(Some(generator.gen_constructor(ctx, fun.0, &def, params)?))
            }
            TopLevelDef::Variable { .. } => unreachable!(),
        }
    }
    .or_else(|_: String| {
@ -1113,7 +1104,7 @@ pub fn allocate_list<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    // List structure; type { ty*, size_t }
    let arr_ty = ListType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, llvm_elem_ty);
-    let list = arr_ty.alloca(generator, ctx, name);
+    let list = arr_ty.new_value(generator, ctx, name);
    let length = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend(length, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
    list.store_size(ctx, generator, length);
@ -1169,8 +1160,7 @@ pub fn gen_comprehension<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
        TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. }
            if *obj_id == ctx.primitives.range.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).unwrap() =>
        {
-            let iter_val =
+            let iter_val = RangeValue::from_ptr_val(iter_val.into_pointer_value(), Some("range"));
                RangeValue::from_pointer_value(iter_val.into_pointer_value(), Some("range"));
            let (start, stop, step) = destructure_range(ctx, iter_val);
            let diff = ctx.builder.build_int_sub(stop, start, "diff").unwrap();
            // add 1 to the length as the value is rounded to zero
@ -1401,10 +1391,8 @@ pub fn gen_binop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                let llvm_elem_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, elem_ty1);
                let sizeof_elem = llvm_elem_ty.size_of().unwrap();
-                let lhs =
+                let lhs = ListValue::from_ptr_val(left_val.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
-                    ListValue::from_pointer_value(left_val.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
+                let rhs = ListValue::from_ptr_val(right_val.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
                let rhs =
                    ListValue::from_pointer_value(right_val.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
                let size = ctx
                    .builder
@ -1487,7 +1475,7 @@ pub fn gen_binop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                        codegen_unreachable!(ctx)
                    };
                let list_val =
-                    ListValue::from_pointer_value(list_val.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
+                    ListValue::from_ptr_val(list_val.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
                let int_val = ctx
                    .builder
                    .build_int_s_extend(int_val.into_int_value(), llvm_usize, "")
@ -1554,6 +1542,8 @@ pub fn gen_binop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
    } else if ty1.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).is_some_and(|id| id == PrimDef::NDArray.id())
        || ty2.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).is_some_and(|id| id == PrimDef::NDArray.id())
    {
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
        let is_ndarray1 = ty1.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).is_some_and(|id| id == PrimDef::NDArray.id());
        let is_ndarray2 = ty2.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).is_some_and(|id| id == PrimDef::NDArray.id());
@ -1563,10 +1553,10 @@ pub fn gen_binop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
            assert!(ctx.unifier.unioned(ndarray_dtype1, ndarray_dtype2));
-            let left_val = NDArrayType::from_unifier_type(generator, ctx, ty1)
+            let left_val =
-                .map_value(left_val.into_pointer_value(), None);
+                NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(left_val.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
-            let right_val = NDArrayType::from_unifier_type(generator, ctx, ty2)
+            let right_val =
-                .map_value(right_val.into_pointer_value(), None);
+                NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(right_val.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
            let res = if op.base == Operator::MatMult {
                // MatMult is the only binop which is not an elementwise op
@ -1590,8 +1580,8 @@ pub fn gen_binop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                        BinopVariant::Normal => None,
                        BinopVariant::AugAssign => Some(left_val),
                    },
-                    (ty1, left_val.as_base_value().into(), false),
+                    (left_val.as_base_value().into(), false),
-                    (ty2, right_val.as_base_value().into(), false),
+                    (right_val.as_base_value().into(), false),
                    |generator, ctx, (lhs, rhs)| {
                        gen_binop_expr_with_values(
                            generator,
@ -1615,12 +1605,11 @@ pub fn gen_binop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
        } else {
            let (ndarray_dtype, _) =
                unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, if is_ndarray1 { ty1 } else { ty2 });
-            let ndarray_val =
+            let ndarray_val = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(
-                NDArrayType::from_unifier_type(generator, ctx, if is_ndarray1 { ty1 } else { ty2 })
+                if is_ndarray1 { left_val } else { right_val }.into_pointer_value(),
-                    .map_value(
+                llvm_usize,
-                        if is_ndarray1 { left_val } else { right_val }.into_pointer_value(),
+                None,
-                        None,
+            );
                    );
            let res = numpy::ndarray_elementwise_binop_impl(
                generator,
                ctx,
@ -1629,8 +1618,8 @@ pub fn gen_binop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                    BinopVariant::Normal => None,
                    BinopVariant::AugAssign => Some(ndarray_val),
                },
-                (ty1, left_val, !is_ndarray1),
+                (left_val, !is_ndarray1),
-                (ty2, right_val, !is_ndarray2),
+                (right_val, !is_ndarray2),
                |generator, ctx, (lhs, rhs)| {
                    gen_binop_expr_with_values(
                        generator,
@ -1781,12 +1770,7 @@ pub fn gen_unaryop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
            ast::Unaryop::Invert => ctx.builder.build_not(val, "not").map(Into::into).unwrap(),
            ast::Unaryop::Not => ctx
                .builder
-                .build_int_compare(
+                .build_xor(val, val.get_type().const_all_ones(), "not")
                    inkwell::IntPredicate::EQ,
                    val,
                    val.get_type().const_zero(),
                    "not",
                )
                .map(Into::into)
                .unwrap(),
            ast::Unaryop::UAdd => val.into(),
@ -1808,10 +1792,10 @@ pub fn gen_unaryop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
            _ => val.into(),
        }
    } else if ty.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).is_some_and(|id| id == PrimDef::NDArray.id()) {
-        let llvm_ndarray_ty = NDArrayType::from_unifier_type(generator, ctx, ty);
+        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
        let (ndarray_dtype, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ty);
-        let val = llvm_ndarray_ty.map_value(val.into_pointer_value(), None);
+        let val = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(val.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
        // ndarray uses `~` rather than `not` to perform elementwise inversion, convert it before
        // passing it to the elementwise codegen function
@ -1885,6 +1869,8 @@ pub fn gen_cmpop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
        if left_ty.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).is_some_and(|id| id == PrimDef::NDArray.id())
            || right_ty.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).is_some_and(|id| id == PrimDef::NDArray.id())
        {
            let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
            let (Some(left_ty), lhs) = left else { codegen_unreachable!(ctx) };
            let (Some(right_ty), rhs) = comparators[0] else { codegen_unreachable!(ctx) };
            let op = ops[0];
@ -1900,15 +1886,15 @@ pub fn gen_cmpop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                assert!(ctx.unifier.unioned(ndarray_dtype1, ndarray_dtype2));
-                let left_val = NDArrayType::from_unifier_type(generator, ctx, left_ty)
+                let left_val =
-                    .map_value(lhs.into_pointer_value(), None);
+                    NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(lhs.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
                let res = numpy::ndarray_elementwise_binop_impl(
                    generator,
                    ctx,
                    ctx.primitives.bool,
                    None,
-                    (left_ty, left_val.as_base_value().into(), false),
+                    (left_val.as_base_value().into(), false),
-                    (right_ty, rhs, false),
+                    (rhs, false),
                    |generator, ctx, (lhs, rhs)| {
                        let val = gen_cmpop_expr_with_values(
                            generator,
@ -1939,8 +1925,8 @@ pub fn gen_cmpop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                    ctx,
                    ctx.primitives.bool,
                    None,
-                    (left_ty, lhs, !is_ndarray1),
+                    (lhs, !is_ndarray1),
-                    (right_ty, rhs, !is_ndarray2),
+                    (rhs, !is_ndarray2),
                    |generator, ctx, (lhs, rhs)| {
                        let val = gen_cmpop_expr_with_values(
                            generator,
@ -2203,9 +2189,9 @@ pub fn gen_cmpop_expr_with_values<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                    }
                    let left_val =
-                        ListValue::from_pointer_value(lhs.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
+                        ListValue::from_ptr_val(lhs.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
                    let right_val =
-                        ListValue::from_pointer_value(rhs.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
+                        ListValue::from_ptr_val(rhs.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
                    Ok(gen_if_else_expr_callback(
                        generator,
@ -2522,7 +2508,7 @@ fn gen_ndarray_subscript_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ty: Type,
-    ndims_ty: Type,
+    ndims: Type,
    v: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    slice: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
 ) -> Result<Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>>, String> {
@ -2530,7 +2516,7 @@ fn gen_ndarray_subscript_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
-    let TypeEnum::TLiteral { values, .. } = &*ctx.unifier.get_ty_immutable(ndims_ty) else {
+    let TypeEnum::TLiteral { values, .. } = &*ctx.unifier.get_ty_immutable(ndims) else {
        codegen_unreachable!(ctx)
    };
@ -2563,6 +2549,14 @@ fn gen_ndarray_subscript_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
        _ => 1,
    };
    let ndarray_ndims_ty = ctx.unifier.get_fresh_literal(
        ndims.iter().map(|v| SymbolValue::U64(v - subscripted_dims)).collect(),
        None,
    );
    let ndarray_ty =
        make_ndarray_ty(&mut ctx.unifier, &ctx.primitives, Some(ty), Some(ndarray_ndims_ty));
    let llvm_pndarray_t = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, ndarray_ty).into_pointer_type();
    let llvm_ndarray_t = llvm_pndarray_t.get_element_type().into_struct_type();
    let llvm_ndarray_data_t = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, ty).as_basic_type_enum();
    let sizeof_elem = llvm_ndarray_data_t.size_of().unwrap();
@ -2596,7 +2590,7 @@ fn gen_ndarray_subscript_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
                let len = unsafe {
-                    v.shape().get_typed_unchecked(
+                    v.dim_sizes().get_typed_unchecked(
                        ctx,
                        generator,
                        &llvm_usize.const_int(dim, true),
@ -2637,7 +2631,7 @@ fn gen_ndarray_subscript_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
            ExprKind::Slice { lower, upper, step } => {
                let dim_sz = unsafe {
-                    v.shape().get_typed_unchecked(
+                    v.dim_sizes().get_typed_unchecked(
                        ctx,
                        generator,
                        &llvm_usize.const_int(dim, false),
@ -2754,15 +2748,26 @@ fn gen_ndarray_subscript_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
            _ => {
                // Accessing an element from a multi-dimensional `ndarray`
                let Some(index_addr) = make_indices_arr(generator, ctx)? else { return Ok(None) };
-                let num_dims = extract_ndims(&ctx.unifier, ndims_ty) - 1;
+                let Some(index_addr) = make_indices_arr(generator, ctx)? else { return Ok(None) };
                // Create a new array, remove the top dimension from the dimension-size-list, and copy the
                // elements over
-                let ndarray =
+                let subscripted_ndarray =
-                    NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, llvm_ndarray_data_t, Some(num_dims))
+                    generator.gen_var_alloc(ctx, llvm_ndarray_t.into(), None)?;
-                        .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, None);
+                let ndarray = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(subscripted_ndarray, llvm_usize, None);
                let num_dims = v.load_ndims(ctx);
                ndarray.store_ndims(
                    ctx,
                    generator,
                    ctx.builder
                        .build_int_sub(num_dims, llvm_usize.const_int(1, false), "")
                        .unwrap(),
                );
                let ndarray_num_dims = ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
                ndarray.create_dim_sizes(ctx, llvm_usize, ndarray_num_dims);
                let ndarray_num_dims = ctx
                    .builder
@ -2773,7 +2778,7 @@ fn gen_ndarray_subscript_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                    )
                    .unwrap();
                let v_dims_src_ptr = unsafe {
-                    v.shape().ptr_offset_unchecked(
+                    v.dim_sizes().ptr_offset_unchecked(
                        ctx,
                        generator,
                        &llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
@ -2782,7 +2787,7 @@ fn gen_ndarray_subscript_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                };
                call_memcpy_generic(
                    ctx,
-                    ndarray.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator),
+                    ndarray.dim_sizes().base_ptr(ctx, generator),
                    v_dims_src_ptr,
                    ctx.builder
                        .build_int_mul(ndarray_num_dims, llvm_usize.size_of(), "")
@ -2791,17 +2796,17 @@ fn gen_ndarray_subscript_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                    llvm_i1.const_zero(),
                );
-                let ndarray_num_elems = ndarray::call_ndarray_calc_size(
+                let ndarray_num_elems = call_ndarray_calc_size(
                    generator,
                    ctx,
-                    &ndarray.shape().as_slice_value(ctx, generator),
+                    &ndarray.dim_sizes().as_slice_value(ctx, generator),
                    (None, None),
                );
                let ndarray_num_elems = ctx
                    .builder
                    .build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(ndarray_num_elems, sizeof_elem.get_type(), "")
                    .unwrap();
-                unsafe { ndarray.create_data(generator, ctx) };
+                ndarray.create_data(ctx, llvm_ndarray_data_t, ndarray_num_elems);
                let v_data_src_ptr = v.data().ptr_offset(ctx, generator, &index_addr, None);
                call_memcpy_generic(
@ -2874,31 +2879,7 @@ pub fn gen_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
            Some((_, Some(static_value), _)) => ValueEnum::Static(static_value.clone()),
            None => {
                let resolver = ctx.resolver.clone();
-                let value = resolver.get_symbol_value(*id, ctx, generator).unwrap();
+                resolver.get_symbol_value(*id, ctx).unwrap()
                let globals = ctx
                    .top_level
                    .definitions
                    .read()
                    .iter()
                    .filter_map(|def| {
                        if let TopLevelDef::Variable { simple_name, ty, .. } = &*def.read() {
                            Some((*simple_name, *ty))
                        } else {
                            None
                        }
                    })
                    .collect_vec();
                if let Some((_, ty)) = globals.iter().find(|(name, _)| name == id) {
                    let ptr = value
                        .to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, *ty)
                        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)?;
                    ctx.builder.build_load(ptr, id.to_string().as_str()).map(Into::into).unwrap()
                } else {
                    value
                }
            }
        },
        ExprKind::List { elts, .. } => {
@ -3091,53 +3072,48 @@ pub fn gen_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
            };
            let left = generator.bool_to_i1(ctx, left);
            let current = ctx.builder.get_insert_block().unwrap().get_parent().unwrap();
-            let a_begin_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "a_begin");
+            let a_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "a");
-            let a_end_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "a_end");
+            let b_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "b");
            let b_begin_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "b_begin");
            let b_end_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "b_end");
            let cont_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "cont");
-            ctx.builder.build_conditional_branch(left, a_begin_bb, b_begin_bb).unwrap();
+            ctx.builder.build_conditional_branch(left, a_bb, b_bb).unwrap();
            ctx.builder.position_at_end(a_end_bb);
            ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(cont_bb).unwrap();
            ctx.builder.position_at_end(b_end_bb);
            ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(cont_bb).unwrap();
            let (a, b) = match op {
                Boolop::Or => {
-                    ctx.builder.position_at_end(a_begin_bb);
+                    ctx.builder.position_at_end(a_bb);
                    let a = ctx.ctx.i8_type().const_int(1, false);
-                    ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(a_end_bb).unwrap();
+                    ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(cont_bb).unwrap();
-                    ctx.builder.position_at_end(b_begin_bb);
+                    ctx.builder.position_at_end(b_bb);
                    let b = if let Some(v) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, &values[1])? {
                        let b = v
                            .to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, values[1].custom.unwrap())?
                            .into_int_value();
                        let b = generator.bool_to_i8(ctx, b);
                        ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(cont_bb).unwrap();
                        Some(b)
                    } else {
                        None
                    };
                    ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(b_end_bb).unwrap();
                    (Some(a), b)
                }
                Boolop::And => {
-                    ctx.builder.position_at_end(a_begin_bb);
+                    ctx.builder.position_at_end(a_bb);
                    let a = if let Some(v) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, &values[1])? {
                        let a = v
                            .to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, values[1].custom.unwrap())?
                            .into_int_value();
                        let a = generator.bool_to_i8(ctx, a);
                        ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(cont_bb).unwrap();
                        Some(a)
                    } else {
                        None
                    };
                    ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(a_end_bb).unwrap();
-                    ctx.builder.position_at_end(b_begin_bb);
+                    ctx.builder.position_at_end(b_bb);
                    let b = ctx.ctx.i8_type().const_zero();
-                    ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(b_end_bb).unwrap();
+                    ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(cont_bb).unwrap();
                    (a, Some(b))
                }
@ -3147,7 +3123,7 @@ pub fn gen_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
            match (a, b) {
                (Some(a), Some(b)) => {
                    let phi = ctx.builder.build_phi(ctx.ctx.i8_type(), "").unwrap();
-                    phi.add_incoming(&[(&a, a_end_bb), (&b, b_end_bb)]);
+                    phi.add_incoming(&[(&a, a_bb), (&b, b_bb)]);
                    phi.as_basic_value().into()
                }
                (Some(a), None) => a.into(),
@ -3385,7 +3361,7 @@ pub fn gen_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                    } else {
                        return Ok(None);
                    };
-                    let v = ListValue::from_pointer_value(v, usize, Some("arr"));
+                    let v = ListValue::from_ptr_val(v, usize, Some("arr"));
                    let ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, *ty);
                    if let ExprKind::Slice { lower, upper, step } = &slice.node {
                        let one = int32.const_int(1, false);
@ -3486,22 +3462,18 @@ pub fn gen_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                        v.data().get(ctx, generator, &index, None).into()
                    }
                }
-                TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
+                TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, params, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
-                    let Some(ndarray) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, value)? else {
+                    let (ty, ndims) = params.iter().map(|(_, ty)| ty).collect_tuple().unwrap();
                    let v = if let Some(v) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, value)? {
                        v.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, value.custom.unwrap())?
                            .into_pointer_value()
                    } else {
                        return Ok(None);
                    };
                    let v = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(v, usize, None);
-                    let ndarray_ty = value.custom.unwrap();
+                    return gen_ndarray_subscript_expr(generator, ctx, *ty, *ndims, v, slice);
                    let ndarray = ndarray.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, ndarray_ty)?;
                    let ndarray = NDArrayType::from_unifier_type(generator, ctx, ndarray_ty)
                        .map_value(ndarray.into_pointer_value(), None);
                    let indices = RustNDIndex::from_subscript_expr(generator, ctx, slice)?;
                    let result = ndarray
                        .index(generator, ctx, &indices)
                        .split_unsized(generator, ctx)
                        .to_basic_value_enum();
                    return Ok(Some(ValueEnum::Dynamic(result)));
                }
                TypeEnum::TTuple { .. } => {
                    let index: u32 =
@ -3550,97 +3522,3 @@ pub fn gen_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
        _ => unimplemented!(),
    }))
 }
 /// Creates a function in the current module and inserts a `call` instruction into the LLVM IR.
 #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
 pub fn create_fn_and_call<'ctx>(
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    fn_name: &str,
    ret_type: Option<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
    params: &[BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>],
    args: &[BasicValueEnum<'ctx>],
    is_var_args: bool,
    call_value_name: Option<&str>,
    configure: Option<&dyn Fn(&FunctionValue<'ctx>)>,
 ) -> Option<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>> {
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function(fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let params = params.iter().copied().map(BasicTypeEnum::into).collect_vec();
        let fn_type = if let Some(ret_type) = ret_type {
            ret_type.fn_type(params.as_slice(), is_var_args)
        } else {
            ctx.ctx.void_type().fn_type(params.as_slice(), is_var_args)
        };
        ctx.module.add_function(fn_name, fn_type, None)
    });
    if let Some(configure) = configure {
        configure(&intrinsic_fn);
    }
    let args = args.iter().copied().map(BasicValueEnum::into).collect_vec();
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, args.as_slice(), call_value_name.unwrap_or_default())
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(Either::left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// Creates a function in the current module and inserts a `call` instruction into the LLVM IR.
 ///
 /// This is a wrapper around [`create_fn_and_call`] for non-vararg function. This function allows
 /// parameters and arguments to be specified as tuples to better indicate the expected type and
 /// actual value of each parameter-argument pair of the call.
 pub fn create_and_call_function<'ctx>(
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    fn_name: &str,
    ret_type: Option<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
    params: &[(BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>, BasicValueEnum<'ctx>)],
    value_name: Option<&str>,
    configure: Option<&dyn Fn(&FunctionValue<'ctx>)>,
 ) -> Option<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>> {
    let param_tys = params.iter().map(|(ty, _)| ty).copied().map(BasicTypeEnum::into).collect_vec();
    let arg_values =
        params.iter().map(|(_, value)| value).copied().map(BasicValueEnum::into).collect_vec();
    create_fn_and_call(
        ctx,
        fn_name,
        ret_type,
        param_tys.as_slice(),
        arg_values.as_slice(),
        false,
        value_name,
        configure,
    )
 }
 /// Creates a function in the current module and inserts a `call` instruction into the LLVM IR.
 ///
 /// This is a wrapper around [`create_fn_and_call`] for non-vararg function. This function allows
 /// only arguments to be specified and performs inference for the parameter types of the function
 /// using [`BasicValueEnum::get_type`] on the arguments.
 ///
 /// This function is recommended if it is known that all function arguments match the parameter
 /// types of the invoked function.
 pub fn infer_and_call_function<'ctx>(
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    fn_name: &str,
    ret_type: Option<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
    args: &[BasicValueEnum<'ctx>],
    value_name: Option<&str>,
    configure: Option<&dyn Fn(&FunctionValue<'ctx>)>,
 ) -> Option<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>> {
    let param_tys = args.iter().map(BasicValueEnum::get_type).collect_vec();
    create_fn_and_call(
        ctx,
        fn_name,
        ret_type,
        param_tys.as_slice(),
        args,
        false,
        value_name,
        configure,
    )
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/extern_fns.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/extern_fns.rs
@ -1,10 +1,8 @@
-use inkwell::{
+use inkwell::attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc};
-    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
+use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue};
    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue},
 };
 use itertools::Either;
-use super::CodeGenContext;
+use crate::codegen::CodeGenContext;
 /// Macro to generate extern function
 /// Both function return type and function parameter type are `FloatValue`
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/generator.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/generator.rs
@ -1,18 +1,16 @@
 use crate::{
    codegen::{bool_to_i1, bool_to_i8, classes::ArraySliceValue, expr::*, stmt::*, CodeGenContext},
    symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
    toplevel::{DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
    typecheck::typedef::{FunSignature, Type},
 };
 use inkwell::{
    context::Context,
    types::{BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
 };
 use nac3parser::ast::{Expr, Stmt, StrRef};
 use super::{bool_to_i1, bool_to_i8, expr::*, stmt::*, values::ArraySliceValue, CodeGenContext};
 use crate::{
    symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
    toplevel::{DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
    typecheck::typedef::{FunSignature, Type},
 };
 pub trait CodeGenerator {
    /// Return the module name for the code generator.
    fn get_name(&self) -> &str;
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/list.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/list.rs
@ -1,162 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    types::BasicTypeEnum,
    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, IntValue},
    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
 };
 use itertools::Either;
 use super::calculate_len_for_slice_range;
 use crate::codegen::{
    macros::codegen_unreachable,
    values::{ArrayLikeValue, ListValue},
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 /// This function handles 'end' **inclusively**.
 /// Order of tuples `assign_idx` and `value_idx` is ('start', 'end', 'step').
 /// Negative index should be handled before entering this function
 pub fn list_slice_assignment<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ty: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
    dest_arr: ListValue<'ctx>,
    dest_idx: (IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>),
    src_arr: ListValue<'ctx>,
    src_idx: (IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>),
 ) {
    let size_ty = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let int8_ptr = ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let int32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
    let (fun_symbol, elem_ptr_type) = ("__nac3_list_slice_assign_var_size", int8_ptr);
    let slice_assign_fun = {
        let ty_vec = vec![
            int32.into(),         // dest start idx
            int32.into(),         // dest end idx
            int32.into(),         // dest step
            elem_ptr_type.into(), // dest arr ptr
            int32.into(),         // dest arr len
            int32.into(),         // src start idx
            int32.into(),         // src end idx
            int32.into(),         // src step
            elem_ptr_type.into(), // src arr ptr
            int32.into(),         // src arr len
            int32.into(),         // size
        ];
        ctx.module.get_function(fun_symbol).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            let fn_t = int32.fn_type(ty_vec.as_slice(), false);
            ctx.module.add_function(fun_symbol, fn_t, None)
        })
    };
    let zero = int32.const_zero();
    let one = int32.const_int(1, false);
    let dest_arr_ptr = dest_arr.data().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
    let dest_arr_ptr =
        ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(dest_arr_ptr, elem_ptr_type, "dest_arr_ptr_cast").unwrap();
    let dest_len = dest_arr.load_size(ctx, Some("dest.len"));
    let dest_len = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(dest_len, int32, "srclen32").unwrap();
    let src_arr_ptr = src_arr.data().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
    let src_arr_ptr =
        ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(src_arr_ptr, elem_ptr_type, "src_arr_ptr_cast").unwrap();
    let src_len = src_arr.load_size(ctx, Some("src.len"));
    let src_len = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(src_len, int32, "srclen32").unwrap();
    // index in bound and positive should be done
    // assert if dest.step == 1 then len(src) <= len(dest) else len(src) == len(dest), and
    // throw exception if not satisfied
    let src_end = ctx
        .builder
        .build_select(
            ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, src_idx.2, zero, "is_neg").unwrap(),
            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(src_idx.1, one, "e_min_one").unwrap(),
            ctx.builder.build_int_add(src_idx.1, one, "e_add_one").unwrap(),
            "final_e",
        )
        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
        .unwrap();
    let dest_end = ctx
        .builder
        .build_select(
            ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, dest_idx.2, zero, "is_neg").unwrap(),
            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(dest_idx.1, one, "e_min_one").unwrap(),
            ctx.builder.build_int_add(dest_idx.1, one, "e_add_one").unwrap(),
            "final_e",
        )
        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
        .unwrap();
    let src_slice_len =
        calculate_len_for_slice_range(generator, ctx, src_idx.0, src_end, src_idx.2);
    let dest_slice_len =
        calculate_len_for_slice_range(generator, ctx, dest_idx.0, dest_end, dest_idx.2);
    let src_eq_dest = ctx
        .builder
        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, src_slice_len, dest_slice_len, "slice_src_eq_dest")
        .unwrap();
    let src_slt_dest = ctx
        .builder
        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, src_slice_len, dest_slice_len, "slice_src_slt_dest")
        .unwrap();
    let dest_step_eq_one = ctx
        .builder
        .build_int_compare(
            IntPredicate::EQ,
            dest_idx.2,
            dest_idx.2.get_type().const_int(1, false),
            "slice_dest_step_eq_one",
        )
        .unwrap();
    let cond_1 = ctx.builder.build_and(dest_step_eq_one, src_slt_dest, "slice_cond_1").unwrap();
    let cond = ctx.builder.build_or(src_eq_dest, cond_1, "slice_cond").unwrap();
    ctx.make_assert(
        generator,
        cond,
        "0:ValueError",
        "attempt to assign sequence of size {0} to slice of size {1} with step size {2}",
        [Some(src_slice_len), Some(dest_slice_len), Some(dest_idx.2)],
        ctx.current_loc,
    );
    let new_len = {
        let args = vec![
            dest_idx.0.into(),   // dest start idx
            dest_idx.1.into(),   // dest end idx
            dest_idx.2.into(),   // dest step
            dest_arr_ptr.into(), // dest arr ptr
            dest_len.into(),     // dest arr len
            src_idx.0.into(),    // src start idx
            src_idx.1.into(),    // src end idx
            src_idx.2.into(),    // src step
            src_arr_ptr.into(),  // src arr ptr
            src_len.into(),      // src arr len
            {
                let s = match ty {
                    BasicTypeEnum::FloatType(t) => t.size_of(),
                    BasicTypeEnum::IntType(t) => t.size_of(),
                    BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(t) => t.size_of(),
                    BasicTypeEnum::StructType(t) => t.size_of().unwrap(),
                    _ => codegen_unreachable!(ctx),
                };
                ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(s, int32, "size").unwrap()
            }
            .into(),
        ];
        ctx.builder
            .build_call(slice_assign_fun, args.as_slice(), "slice_assign")
            .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
            .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
            .map(Either::unwrap_left)
            .unwrap()
    };
    // update length
    let need_update =
        ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, new_len, dest_len, "need_update").unwrap();
    let current = ctx.builder.get_insert_block().unwrap().get_parent().unwrap();
    let update_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "update");
    let cont_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "cont");
    ctx.builder.build_conditional_branch(need_update, update_bb, cont_bb).unwrap();
    ctx.builder.position_at_end(update_bb);
    let new_len = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(new_len, size_ty, "new_len").unwrap();
    dest_arr.store_size(ctx, generator, new_len);
    ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(cont_bb).unwrap();
    ctx.builder.position_at_end(cont_bb);
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/math.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/math.rs
@ -1,152 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue},
    IntPredicate,
 };
 use itertools::Either;
 use crate::codegen::{
    macros::codegen_unreachable,
    {CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
 };
 // repeated squaring method adapted from GNU Scientific Library:
 // https://git.savannah.gnu.org/cgit/gsl.git/tree/sys/pow_int.c
 pub fn integer_power<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    base: IntValue<'ctx>,
    exp: IntValue<'ctx>,
    signed: bool,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    let symbol = match (base.get_type().get_bit_width(), exp.get_type().get_bit_width(), signed) {
        (32, 32, true) => "__nac3_int_exp_int32_t",
        (64, 64, true) => "__nac3_int_exp_int64_t",
        (32, 32, false) => "__nac3_int_exp_uint32_t",
        (64, 64, false) => "__nac3_int_exp_uint64_t",
        _ => codegen_unreachable!(ctx),
    };
    let base_type = base.get_type();
    let pow_fun = ctx.module.get_function(symbol).unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = base_type.fn_type(&[base_type.into(), base_type.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function(symbol, fn_type, None)
    });
    // throw exception when exp < 0
    let ge_zero = ctx
        .builder
        .build_int_compare(
            IntPredicate::SGE,
            exp,
            exp.get_type().const_zero(),
            "assert_int_pow_ge_0",
        )
        .unwrap();
    ctx.make_assert(
        generator,
        ge_zero,
        "0:ValueError",
        "integer power must be positive or zero",
        [None, None, None],
        ctx.current_loc,
    );
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(pow_fun, &[base.into(), exp.into()], "call_int_pow")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// Generates a call to `isinf` in IR. Returns an `i1` representing the result.
 pub fn call_isinf<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_isinf").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = ctx.ctx.i32_type().fn_type(&[ctx.ctx.f64_type().into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_isinf", fn_type, None)
    });
    let ret = ctx
        .builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "isinf")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap();
    generator.bool_to_i1(ctx, ret)
 }
 /// Generates a call to `isnan` in IR. Returns an `i1` representing the result.
 pub fn call_isnan<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_isnan").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = ctx.ctx.i32_type().fn_type(&[ctx.ctx.f64_type().into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_isnan", fn_type, None)
    });
    let ret = ctx
        .builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "isnan")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap();
    generator.bool_to_i1(ctx, ret)
 }
 /// Generates a call to `gamma` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
 pub fn call_gamma<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, v: FloatValue<'ctx>) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_gamma").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_gamma", fn_type, None)
    });
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "gamma")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// Generates a call to `gammaln` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
 pub fn call_gammaln<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, v: FloatValue<'ctx>) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_gammaln").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_gammaln", fn_type, None)
    });
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "gammaln")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// Generates a call to `j0` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
 pub fn call_j0<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, v: FloatValue<'ctx>) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_j0").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_j0", fn_type, None)
    });
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "j0")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/mod.rs
@ -1,27 +1,27 @@
 use crate::{symbol_resolver::SymbolResolver, typecheck::typedef::Type};
 use super::{
    classes::{
        ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue, ListValue, NDArrayValue,
        TypedArrayLikeAccessor, TypedArrayLikeAdapter, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
    },
    llvm_intrinsics,
    macros::codegen_unreachable,
    stmt::gen_for_callback_incrementing,
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 use inkwell::{
    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
    context::Context,
    memory_buffer::MemoryBuffer,
    module::Module,
-    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, IntValue},
+    types::{BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
-    IntPredicate,
+    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue},
    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
 };
-
+use itertools::Either;
 use nac3parser::ast::Expr;
 use super::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
 use crate::{symbol_resolver::SymbolResolver, typecheck::typedef::Type};
 pub use list::*;
 pub use math::*;
 pub use range::*;
 pub use slice::*;
 mod list;
 mod math;
 pub mod ndarray;
 mod range;
 mod slice;
 #[must_use]
 pub fn load_irrt<'ctx>(ctx: &'ctx Context, symbol_resolver: &dyn SymbolResolver) -> Module<'ctx> {
    let bitcode_buf = MemoryBuffer::create_from_memory_range(
@ -61,25 +61,86 @@ pub fn load_irrt<'ctx>(ctx: &'ctx Context, symbol_resolver: &dyn SymbolResolver)
    irrt_mod
 }
-/// Returns the name of a function which contains variants for 32-bit and 64-bit `size_t`.
+// repeated squaring method adapted from GNU Scientific Library:
-///
+// https://git.savannah.gnu.org/cgit/gsl.git/tree/sys/pow_int.c
-/// - When [`TypeContext::size_type`] is 32-bits, the function name is `fn_name}`.
+pub fn integer_power<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
-/// - When [`TypeContext::size_type`] is 64-bits, the function name is `{fn_name}64`.
+    generator: &mut G,
-#[must_use]
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-pub fn get_usize_dependent_function_name<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    base: IntValue<'ctx>,
-    generator: &G,
+    exp: IntValue<'ctx>,
-    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'_, '_>,
+    signed: bool,
-    name: &str,
+) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
-) -> String {
+    let symbol = match (base.get_type().get_bit_width(), exp.get_type().get_bit_width(), signed) {
-    let mut name = name.to_owned();
+        (32, 32, true) => "__nac3_int_exp_int32_t",
-    match generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx).get_bit_width() {
+        (64, 64, true) => "__nac3_int_exp_int64_t",
-        32 => {}
+        (32, 32, false) => "__nac3_int_exp_uint32_t",
-        64 => name.push_str("64"),
+        (64, 64, false) => "__nac3_int_exp_uint64_t",
-        bit_width => {
+        _ => codegen_unreachable!(ctx),
-            panic!("Unsupported int type bit width {bit_width}, must be either 32-bits or 64-bits")
+    };
-        }
+    let base_type = base.get_type();
-    }
+    let pow_fun = ctx.module.get_function(symbol).unwrap_or_else(|| {
-    name
+        let fn_type = base_type.fn_type(&[base_type.into(), base_type.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function(symbol, fn_type, None)
    });
    // throw exception when exp < 0
    let ge_zero = ctx
        .builder
        .build_int_compare(
            IntPredicate::SGE,
            exp,
            exp.get_type().const_zero(),
            "assert_int_pow_ge_0",
        )
        .unwrap();
    ctx.make_assert(
        generator,
        ge_zero,
        "0:ValueError",
        "integer power must be positive or zero",
        [None, None, None],
        ctx.current_loc,
    );
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(pow_fun, &[base.into(), exp.into()], "call_int_pow")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 pub fn calculate_len_for_slice_range<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    start: IntValue<'ctx>,
    end: IntValue<'ctx>,
    step: IntValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    const SYMBOL: &str = "__nac3_range_slice_len";
    let len_func = ctx.module.get_function(SYMBOL).unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let i32_t = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
        let fn_t = i32_t.fn_type(&[i32_t.into(), i32_t.into(), i32_t.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function(SYMBOL, fn_t, None)
    });
    // assert step != 0, throw exception if not
    let not_zero = ctx
        .builder
        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, step, step.get_type().const_zero(), "range_step_ne")
        .unwrap();
    ctx.make_assert(
        generator,
        not_zero,
        "0:ValueError",
        "step must not be zero",
        [None, None, None],
        ctx.current_loc,
    );
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(len_func, &[start.into(), end.into(), step.into()], "calc_len")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// NOTE: the output value of the end index of this function should be compared ***inclusively***,
@ -247,3 +308,644 @@ pub fn handle_slice_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
        }
    }))
 }
 /// this function allows index out of range, since python
 /// allows index out of range in slice (`a = [1,2,3]; a[1:10] == [2,3]`).
 pub fn handle_slice_index_bound<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
    i: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    generator: &mut G,
    length: IntValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> Result<Option<IntValue<'ctx>>, String> {
    const SYMBOL: &str = "__nac3_slice_index_bound";
    let func = ctx.module.get_function(SYMBOL).unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let i32_t = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
        let fn_t = i32_t.fn_type(&[i32_t.into(), i32_t.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function(SYMBOL, fn_t, None)
    });
    let i = if let Some(v) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, i)? {
        v.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, i.custom.unwrap())?
    } else {
        return Ok(None);
    };
    Ok(Some(
        ctx.builder
            .build_call(func, &[i.into(), length.into()], "bounded_ind")
            .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
            .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
            .map(Either::unwrap_left)
            .unwrap(),
    ))
 }
 /// This function handles 'end' **inclusively**.
 /// Order of tuples `assign_idx` and `value_idx` is ('start', 'end', 'step').
 /// Negative index should be handled before entering this function
 pub fn list_slice_assignment<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ty: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
    dest_arr: ListValue<'ctx>,
    dest_idx: (IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>),
    src_arr: ListValue<'ctx>,
    src_idx: (IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>),
 ) {
    let size_ty = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let int8_ptr = ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let int32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
    let (fun_symbol, elem_ptr_type) = ("__nac3_list_slice_assign_var_size", int8_ptr);
    let slice_assign_fun = {
        let ty_vec = vec![
            int32.into(),         // dest start idx
            int32.into(),         // dest end idx
            int32.into(),         // dest step
            elem_ptr_type.into(), // dest arr ptr
            int32.into(),         // dest arr len
            int32.into(),         // src start idx
            int32.into(),         // src end idx
            int32.into(),         // src step
            elem_ptr_type.into(), // src arr ptr
            int32.into(),         // src arr len
            int32.into(),         // size
        ];
        ctx.module.get_function(fun_symbol).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            let fn_t = int32.fn_type(ty_vec.as_slice(), false);
            ctx.module.add_function(fun_symbol, fn_t, None)
        })
    };
    let zero = int32.const_zero();
    let one = int32.const_int(1, false);
    let dest_arr_ptr = dest_arr.data().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
    let dest_arr_ptr =
        ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(dest_arr_ptr, elem_ptr_type, "dest_arr_ptr_cast").unwrap();
    let dest_len = dest_arr.load_size(ctx, Some("dest.len"));
    let dest_len = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(dest_len, int32, "srclen32").unwrap();
    let src_arr_ptr = src_arr.data().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
    let src_arr_ptr =
        ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(src_arr_ptr, elem_ptr_type, "src_arr_ptr_cast").unwrap();
    let src_len = src_arr.load_size(ctx, Some("src.len"));
    let src_len = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(src_len, int32, "srclen32").unwrap();
    // index in bound and positive should be done
    // assert if dest.step == 1 then len(src) <= len(dest) else len(src) == len(dest), and
    // throw exception if not satisfied
    let src_end = ctx
        .builder
        .build_select(
            ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, src_idx.2, zero, "is_neg").unwrap(),
            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(src_idx.1, one, "e_min_one").unwrap(),
            ctx.builder.build_int_add(src_idx.1, one, "e_add_one").unwrap(),
            "final_e",
        )
        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
        .unwrap();
    let dest_end = ctx
        .builder
        .build_select(
            ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, dest_idx.2, zero, "is_neg").unwrap(),
            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(dest_idx.1, one, "e_min_one").unwrap(),
            ctx.builder.build_int_add(dest_idx.1, one, "e_add_one").unwrap(),
            "final_e",
        )
        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
        .unwrap();
    let src_slice_len =
        calculate_len_for_slice_range(generator, ctx, src_idx.0, src_end, src_idx.2);
    let dest_slice_len =
        calculate_len_for_slice_range(generator, ctx, dest_idx.0, dest_end, dest_idx.2);
    let src_eq_dest = ctx
        .builder
        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, src_slice_len, dest_slice_len, "slice_src_eq_dest")
        .unwrap();
    let src_slt_dest = ctx
        .builder
        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, src_slice_len, dest_slice_len, "slice_src_slt_dest")
        .unwrap();
    let dest_step_eq_one = ctx
        .builder
        .build_int_compare(
            IntPredicate::EQ,
            dest_idx.2,
            dest_idx.2.get_type().const_int(1, false),
            "slice_dest_step_eq_one",
        )
        .unwrap();
    let cond_1 = ctx.builder.build_and(dest_step_eq_one, src_slt_dest, "slice_cond_1").unwrap();
    let cond = ctx.builder.build_or(src_eq_dest, cond_1, "slice_cond").unwrap();
    ctx.make_assert(
        generator,
        cond,
        "0:ValueError",
        "attempt to assign sequence of size {0} to slice of size {1} with step size {2}",
        [Some(src_slice_len), Some(dest_slice_len), Some(dest_idx.2)],
        ctx.current_loc,
    );
    let new_len = {
        let args = vec![
            dest_idx.0.into(),   // dest start idx
            dest_idx.1.into(),   // dest end idx
            dest_idx.2.into(),   // dest step
            dest_arr_ptr.into(), // dest arr ptr
            dest_len.into(),     // dest arr len
            src_idx.0.into(),    // src start idx
            src_idx.1.into(),    // src end idx
            src_idx.2.into(),    // src step
            src_arr_ptr.into(),  // src arr ptr
            src_len.into(),      // src arr len
            {
                let s = match ty {
                    BasicTypeEnum::FloatType(t) => t.size_of(),
                    BasicTypeEnum::IntType(t) => t.size_of(),
                    BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(t) => t.size_of(),
                    BasicTypeEnum::StructType(t) => t.size_of().unwrap(),
                    _ => codegen_unreachable!(ctx),
                };
                ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(s, int32, "size").unwrap()
            }
            .into(),
        ];
        ctx.builder
            .build_call(slice_assign_fun, args.as_slice(), "slice_assign")
            .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
            .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
            .map(Either::unwrap_left)
            .unwrap()
    };
    // update length
    let need_update =
        ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, new_len, dest_len, "need_update").unwrap();
    let current = ctx.builder.get_insert_block().unwrap().get_parent().unwrap();
    let update_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "update");
    let cont_bb = ctx.ctx.append_basic_block(current, "cont");
    ctx.builder.build_conditional_branch(need_update, update_bb, cont_bb).unwrap();
    ctx.builder.position_at_end(update_bb);
    let new_len = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(new_len, size_ty, "new_len").unwrap();
    dest_arr.store_size(ctx, generator, new_len);
    ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(cont_bb).unwrap();
    ctx.builder.position_at_end(cont_bb);
 }
 /// Generates a call to `isinf` in IR. Returns an `i1` representing the result.
 pub fn call_isinf<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_isinf").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = ctx.ctx.i32_type().fn_type(&[ctx.ctx.f64_type().into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_isinf", fn_type, None)
    });
    let ret = ctx
        .builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "isinf")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap();
    generator.bool_to_i1(ctx, ret)
 }
 /// Generates a call to `isnan` in IR. Returns an `i1` representing the result.
 pub fn call_isnan<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    v: FloatValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_isnan").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = ctx.ctx.i32_type().fn_type(&[ctx.ctx.f64_type().into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_isnan", fn_type, None)
    });
    let ret = ctx
        .builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "isnan")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap();
    generator.bool_to_i1(ctx, ret)
 }
 /// Generates a call to `gamma` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
 pub fn call_gamma<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, v: FloatValue<'ctx>) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_gamma").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_gamma", fn_type, None)
    });
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "gamma")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// Generates a call to `gammaln` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
 pub fn call_gammaln<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, v: FloatValue<'ctx>) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_gammaln").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_gammaln", fn_type, None)
    });
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "gammaln")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// Generates a call to `j0` in IR. Returns an `f64` representing the result.
 pub fn call_j0<'ctx>(ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, v: FloatValue<'ctx>) -> FloatValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_f64 = ctx.ctx.f64_type();
    let intrinsic_fn = ctx.module.get_function("__nac3_j0").unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let fn_type = llvm_f64.fn_type(&[llvm_f64.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function("__nac3_j0", fn_type, None)
    });
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[v.into()], "j0")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_float_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_size`. Returns an [`IntValue`] representing the
 /// calculated total size.
 ///
 /// * `dims` - An [`ArrayLikeIndexer`] containing the size of each dimension.
 /// * `range` - The dimension index to begin and end (exclusively) calculating the dimensions for,
 ///   or [`None`] if starting from the first dimension and ending at the last dimension
 ///   respectively.
 pub fn call_ndarray_calc_size<'ctx, G, Dims>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    dims: &Dims,
    (begin, end): (Option<IntValue<'ctx>>, Option<IntValue<'ctx>>),
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx>
 where
    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
    Dims: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx>,
 {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let ndarray_calc_size_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_size",
        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_size64",
        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
    };
    let ndarray_calc_size_fn_t = llvm_usize.fn_type(
        &[llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_usize.into()],
        false,
    );
    let ndarray_calc_size_fn =
        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_size_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_size_fn_name, ndarray_calc_size_fn_t, None)
        });
    let begin = begin.unwrap_or_else(|| llvm_usize.const_zero());
    let end = end.unwrap_or_else(|| dims.size(ctx, generator));
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(
            ndarray_calc_size_fn,
            &[
                dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
                dims.size(ctx, generator).into(),
                begin.into(),
                end.into(),
            ],
            "",
        )
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices`. Returns a [`TypeArrayLikeAdpater`]
 /// containing `i32` indices of the flattened index.
 ///
 /// * `index` - The index to compute the multidimensional index for.
 /// * `ndarray` - LLVM pointer to the `NDArray`. This value must be the LLVM representation of an
 ///   `NDArray`.
 pub fn call_ndarray_calc_nd_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    index: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
    let llvm_void = ctx.ctx.void_type();
    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pi32 = llvm_i32.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices",
        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices64",
        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
    };
    let ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn =
        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            let fn_type = llvm_void.fn_type(
                &[llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pi32.into()],
                false,
            );
            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn_name, fn_type, None)
        });
    let ndarray_num_dims = ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
    let ndarray_dims = ndarray.dim_sizes();
    let indices = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_i32, ndarray_num_dims, "").unwrap();
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(
            ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn,
            &[
                index.into(),
                ndarray_dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
                ndarray_num_dims.into(),
                indices.into(),
            ],
            "",
        )
        .unwrap();
    TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
        ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(indices, ndarray_num_dims, None),
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into_int_value()),
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into()),
    )
 }
 fn call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl<'ctx, G, Indices>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    indices: &Indices,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx>
 where
    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
    Indices: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx>,
 {
    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pi32 = llvm_i32.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    debug_assert_eq!(
        IntType::try_from(indices.element_type(ctx, generator))
            .map(IntType::get_bit_width)
            .unwrap_or_default(),
        llvm_i32.get_bit_width(),
        "Expected i32 value for argument `indices` to `call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl`"
    );
    debug_assert_eq!(
        indices.size(ctx, generator).get_type().get_bit_width(),
        llvm_usize.get_bit_width(),
        "Expected usize integer value for argument `indices_size` to `call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl`"
    );
    let ndarray_flatten_index_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index",
        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index64",
        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
    };
    let ndarray_flatten_index_fn =
        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_flatten_index_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            let fn_type = llvm_usize.fn_type(
                &[llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pi32.into(), llvm_usize.into()],
                false,
            );
            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_flatten_index_fn_name, fn_type, None)
        });
    let ndarray_num_dims = ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
    let ndarray_dims = ndarray.dim_sizes();
    let index = ctx
        .builder
        .build_call(
            ndarray_flatten_index_fn,
            &[
                ndarray_dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
                ndarray_num_dims.into(),
                indices.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
                indices.size(ctx, generator).into(),
            ],
            "",
        )
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap();
    index
 }
 /// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index`. Returns the flattened index for the
 /// multidimensional index.
 ///
 /// * `ndarray` - LLVM pointer to the `NDArray`. This value must be the LLVM representation of an
 ///   `NDArray`.
 /// * `indices` - The multidimensional index to compute the flattened index for.
 pub fn call_ndarray_flatten_index<'ctx, G, Index>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    indices: &Index,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx>
 where
    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
    Index: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx>,
 {
    call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(generator, ctx, ndarray, indices)
 }
 /// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast`. Returns a tuple containing the number of
 /// dimension and size of each dimension of the resultant `ndarray`.
 pub fn call_ndarray_calc_broadcast<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    lhs: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    rhs: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast",
        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast64",
        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
    };
    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn =
        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            let fn_type = llvm_usize.fn_type(
                &[
                    llvm_pusize.into(),
                    llvm_usize.into(),
                    llvm_pusize.into(),
                    llvm_usize.into(),
                    llvm_pusize.into(),
                ],
                false,
            );
            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name, fn_type, None)
        });
    let lhs_ndims = lhs.load_ndims(ctx);
    let rhs_ndims = rhs.load_ndims(ctx);
    let min_ndims = llvm_intrinsics::call_int_umin(ctx, lhs_ndims, rhs_ndims, None);
    gen_for_callback_incrementing(
        generator,
        ctx,
        None,
        llvm_usize.const_zero(),
        (min_ndims, false),
        |generator, ctx, _, idx| {
            let idx = ctx.builder.build_int_sub(min_ndims, idx, "").unwrap();
            let (lhs_dim_sz, rhs_dim_sz) = unsafe {
                (
                    lhs.dim_sizes().get_typed_unchecked(ctx, generator, &idx, None),
                    rhs.dim_sizes().get_typed_unchecked(ctx, generator, &idx, None),
                )
            };
            let llvm_usize_const_one = llvm_usize.const_int(1, false);
            let lhs_eqz = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, lhs_dim_sz, llvm_usize_const_one, "")
                .unwrap();
            let rhs_eqz = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, rhs_dim_sz, llvm_usize_const_one, "")
                .unwrap();
            let lhs_or_rhs_eqz = ctx.builder.build_or(lhs_eqz, rhs_eqz, "").unwrap();
            let lhs_eq_rhs = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, lhs_dim_sz, rhs_dim_sz, "")
                .unwrap();
            let is_compatible = ctx.builder.build_or(lhs_or_rhs_eqz, lhs_eq_rhs, "").unwrap();
            ctx.make_assert(
                generator,
                is_compatible,
                "0:ValueError",
                "operands could not be broadcast together",
                [None, None, None],
                ctx.current_loc,
            );
            Ok(())
        },
        llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
    )
    .unwrap();
    let max_ndims = llvm_intrinsics::call_int_umax(ctx, lhs_ndims, rhs_ndims, None);
    let lhs_dims = lhs.dim_sizes().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
    let lhs_ndims = lhs.load_ndims(ctx);
    let rhs_dims = rhs.dim_sizes().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
    let rhs_ndims = rhs.load_ndims(ctx);
    let out_dims = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_usize, max_ndims, "").unwrap();
    let out_dims = ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(out_dims, max_ndims, None);
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(
            ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn,
            &[
                lhs_dims.into(),
                lhs_ndims.into(),
                rhs_dims.into(),
                rhs_ndims.into(),
                out_dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
            ],
            "",
        )
        .unwrap();
    TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
        out_dims,
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into_int_value()),
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into()),
    )
 }
 /// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx`. Returns an [`ArrayAllocaValue`]
 /// containing the indices used for accessing `array` corresponding to the index of the broadcasted
 /// array `broadcast_idx`.
 pub fn call_ndarray_calc_broadcast_index<
    'ctx,
    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
    BroadcastIdx: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx>,
 >(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    array: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    broadcast_idx: &BroadcastIdx,
 ) -> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pi32 = llvm_i32.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx",
        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx64",
        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
    };
    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn =
        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            let fn_type = llvm_usize.fn_type(
                &[llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pi32.into(), llvm_pi32.into()],
                false,
            );
            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name, fn_type, None)
        });
    let broadcast_size = broadcast_idx.size(ctx, generator);
    let out_idx = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_i32, broadcast_size, "").unwrap();
    let array_dims = array.dim_sizes().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
    let array_ndims = array.load_ndims(ctx);
    let broadcast_idx_ptr = unsafe {
        broadcast_idx.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, &llvm_usize.const_zero(), None)
    };
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(
            ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn,
            &[array_dims.into(), array_ndims.into(), broadcast_idx_ptr.into(), out_idx.into()],
            "",
        )
        .unwrap();
    TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
        ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(out_idx, broadcast_size, None),
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into_int_value()),
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into()),
    )
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/basic.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/basic.rs
@ -1,250 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use crate::codegen::{
    expr::{create_and_call_function, infer_and_call_function},
    irrt::get_usize_dependent_function_name,
    types::ProxyType,
    values::{ndarray::NDArrayValue, ProxyValue},
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
    shape: PointerValue<'ctx>,
 ) {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(
        generator,
        ctx,
        "__nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative",
    );
    create_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        Some(llvm_usize.into()),
        &[(llvm_usize.into(), ndims.into()), (llvm_pusize.into(), shape.into())],
        None,
        None,
    );
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray_ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ndarray_shape: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    output_ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
    output_shape: IntValue<'ctx>,
 ) {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(
        generator,
        ctx,
        "__nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same",
    );
    create_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        Some(llvm_usize.into()),
        &[
            (llvm_usize.into(), ndarray_ndims.into()),
            (llvm_pusize.into(), ndarray_shape.into()),
            (llvm_usize.into(), output_ndims.into()),
            (llvm_pusize.into(), output_shape.into()),
        ],
        None,
        None,
    );
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_size<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_size");
    create_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        Some(llvm_usize.into()),
        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into())],
        Some("size"),
        None,
    )
    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
    .unwrap()
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_nbytes<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_nbytes");
    create_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        Some(llvm_usize.into()),
        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into())],
        Some("nbytes"),
        None,
    )
    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
    .unwrap()
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_len<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_len");
    create_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        Some(llvm_usize.into()),
        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into())],
        Some("len"),
        None,
    )
    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
    .unwrap()
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_i1 = ctx.ctx.bool_type();
    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous");
    create_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        Some(llvm_i1.into()),
        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into())],
        Some("is_c_contiguous"),
        None,
    )
    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
    .unwrap()
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    index: IntValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
    let llvm_pi8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement");
    create_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        Some(llvm_pi8.into()),
        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into()), (llvm_usize.into(), index.into())],
        Some("pelement"),
        None,
    )
    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
    .unwrap()
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    indices: PointerValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
    let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
    let llvm_pi8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
    let name =
        get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices");
    create_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        Some(llvm_pi8.into()),
        &[
            (llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into()),
            (llvm_pusize.into(), indices.into()),
        ],
        Some("pelement"),
        None,
    )
    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
    .unwrap()
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) {
    let llvm_ndarray = ndarray.get_type().as_base_type();
    let name =
        get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape");
    create_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        None,
        &[(llvm_ndarray.into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into())],
        None,
        None,
    );
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_copy_data<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    src_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    dst_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) {
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_copy_data");
    infer_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        None,
        &[src_ndarray.as_base_value().into(), dst_ndarray.as_base_value().into()],
        None,
        None,
    );
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/indexing.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/indexing.rs
@ -1,29 +0,0 @@
 use crate::codegen::{
    expr::infer_and_call_function,
    irrt::get_usize_dependent_function_name,
    values::{ndarray::NDArrayValue, ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue},
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_index<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
    src_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    dst_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) {
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_index");
    infer_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        None,
        &[
            indices.size(ctx, generator).into(),
            indices.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
            src_ndarray.as_base_value().into(),
            dst_ndarray.as_base_value().into(),
        ],
        None,
        None,
    );
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/iter.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/iter.rs
@ -1,70 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue},
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use crate::codegen::{
    expr::{create_and_call_function, infer_and_call_function},
    irrt::get_usize_dependent_function_name,
    types::ProxyType,
    values::{
        ndarray::{NDArrayValue, NDIterValue},
        ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue,
    },
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 pub fn call_nac3_nditer_initialize<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    iter: NDIterValue<'ctx>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
 ) {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_nditer_initialize");
    create_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        None,
        &[
            (iter.get_type().as_base_type().into(), iter.as_base_value().into()),
            (ndarray.get_type().as_base_type().into(), ndarray.as_base_value().into()),
            (llvm_pusize.into(), indices.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into()),
        ],
        None,
        None,
    );
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_nditer_has_element<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    iter: NDIterValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_nditer_has_element");
    infer_and_call_function(
        ctx,
        &name,
        Some(ctx.ctx.bool_type().into()),
        &[iter.as_base_value().into()],
        None,
        None,
    )
    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
    .unwrap()
 }
 pub fn call_nac3_nditer_next<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    iter: NDIterValue<'ctx>,
 ) {
    let name = get_usize_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_nditer_next");
    infer_and_call_function(ctx, &name, None, &[iter.as_base_value().into()], None, None);
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/ndarray/mod.rs
@ -1,391 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    types::IntType,
    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, IntValue},
    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
 };
 use itertools::Either;
 use crate::codegen::{
    llvm_intrinsics,
    macros::codegen_unreachable,
    stmt::gen_for_callback_incrementing,
    values::{
        ndarray::NDArrayValue, ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue,
        TypedArrayLikeAccessor, TypedArrayLikeAdapter, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
    },
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 pub use basic::*;
 pub use indexing::*;
 pub use iter::*;
 mod basic;
 mod indexing;
 mod iter;
 /// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_size`. Returns an [`IntValue`] representing the
 /// calculated total size.
 ///
 /// * `dims` - An [`ArrayLikeIndexer`] containing the size of each dimension.
 /// * `range` - The dimension index to begin and end (exclusively) calculating the dimensions for,
 ///   or [`None`] if starting from the first dimension and ending at the last dimension
 ///   respectively.
 pub fn call_ndarray_calc_size<'ctx, G, Dims>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    dims: &Dims,
    (begin, end): (Option<IntValue<'ctx>>, Option<IntValue<'ctx>>),
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx>
 where
    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
    Dims: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx>,
 {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let ndarray_calc_size_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_size",
        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_size64",
        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
    };
    let ndarray_calc_size_fn_t = llvm_usize.fn_type(
        &[llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_usize.into()],
        false,
    );
    let ndarray_calc_size_fn =
        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_size_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_size_fn_name, ndarray_calc_size_fn_t, None)
        });
    let begin = begin.unwrap_or_else(|| llvm_usize.const_zero());
    let end = end.unwrap_or_else(|| dims.size(ctx, generator));
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(
            ndarray_calc_size_fn,
            &[
                dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
                dims.size(ctx, generator).into(),
                begin.into(),
                end.into(),
            ],
            "",
        )
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices`. Returns a [`TypeArrayLikeAdpater`]
 /// containing `i32` indices of the flattened index.
 ///
 /// * `index` - The index to compute the multidimensional index for.
 /// * `ndarray` - LLVM pointer to the `NDArray`. This value must be the LLVM representation of an
 ///   `NDArray`.
 pub fn call_ndarray_calc_nd_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    index: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
    let llvm_void = ctx.ctx.void_type();
    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pi32 = llvm_i32.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices",
        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices64",
        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
    };
    let ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn =
        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            let fn_type = llvm_void.fn_type(
                &[llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pi32.into()],
                false,
            );
            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn_name, fn_type, None)
        });
    let ndarray_num_dims = ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
    let ndarray_dims = ndarray.shape();
    let indices = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_i32, ndarray_num_dims, "").unwrap();
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(
            ndarray_calc_nd_indices_fn,
            &[
                index.into(),
                ndarray_dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
                ndarray_num_dims.into(),
                indices.into(),
            ],
            "",
        )
        .unwrap();
    TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
        ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(indices, ndarray_num_dims, None),
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into_int_value()),
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into()),
    )
 }
 fn call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl<'ctx, G, Indices>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    indices: &Indices,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx>
 where
    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
    Indices: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx>,
 {
    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pi32 = llvm_i32.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    debug_assert_eq!(
        IntType::try_from(indices.element_type(ctx, generator))
            .map(IntType::get_bit_width)
            .unwrap_or_default(),
        llvm_i32.get_bit_width(),
        "Expected i32 value for argument `indices` to `call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl`"
    );
    debug_assert_eq!(
        indices.size(ctx, generator).get_type().get_bit_width(),
        llvm_usize.get_bit_width(),
        "Expected usize integer value for argument `indices_size` to `call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl`"
    );
    let ndarray_flatten_index_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index",
        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index64",
        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
    };
    let ndarray_flatten_index_fn =
        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_flatten_index_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            let fn_type = llvm_usize.fn_type(
                &[llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pi32.into(), llvm_usize.into()],
                false,
            );
            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_flatten_index_fn_name, fn_type, None)
        });
    let ndarray_num_dims = ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
    let ndarray_dims = ndarray.shape();
    let index = ctx
        .builder
        .build_call(
            ndarray_flatten_index_fn,
            &[
                ndarray_dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
                ndarray_num_dims.into(),
                indices.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
                indices.size(ctx, generator).into(),
            ],
            "",
        )
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap();
    index
 }
 /// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index`. Returns the flattened index for the
 /// multidimensional index.
 ///
 /// * `ndarray` - LLVM pointer to the `NDArray`. This value must be the LLVM representation of an
 ///   `NDArray`.
 /// * `indices` - The multidimensional index to compute the flattened index for.
 pub fn call_ndarray_flatten_index<'ctx, G, Index>(
    generator: &G,
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    indices: &Index,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx>
 where
    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
    Index: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx>,
 {
    call_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(generator, ctx, ndarray, indices)
 }
 /// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast`. Returns a tuple containing the number of
 /// dimension and size of each dimension of the resultant `ndarray`.
 pub fn call_ndarray_calc_broadcast<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    lhs: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    rhs: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast",
        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast64",
        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
    };
    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn =
        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            let fn_type = llvm_usize.fn_type(
                &[
                    llvm_pusize.into(),
                    llvm_usize.into(),
                    llvm_pusize.into(),
                    llvm_usize.into(),
                    llvm_pusize.into(),
                ],
                false,
            );
            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name, fn_type, None)
        });
    let lhs_ndims = lhs.load_ndims(ctx);
    let rhs_ndims = rhs.load_ndims(ctx);
    let min_ndims = llvm_intrinsics::call_int_umin(ctx, lhs_ndims, rhs_ndims, None);
    gen_for_callback_incrementing(
        generator,
        ctx,
        None,
        llvm_usize.const_zero(),
        (min_ndims, false),
        |generator, ctx, _, idx| {
            let idx = ctx.builder.build_int_sub(min_ndims, idx, "").unwrap();
            let (lhs_dim_sz, rhs_dim_sz) = unsafe {
                (
                    lhs.shape().get_typed_unchecked(ctx, generator, &idx, None),
                    rhs.shape().get_typed_unchecked(ctx, generator, &idx, None),
                )
            };
            let llvm_usize_const_one = llvm_usize.const_int(1, false);
            let lhs_eqz = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, lhs_dim_sz, llvm_usize_const_one, "")
                .unwrap();
            let rhs_eqz = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, rhs_dim_sz, llvm_usize_const_one, "")
                .unwrap();
            let lhs_or_rhs_eqz = ctx.builder.build_or(lhs_eqz, rhs_eqz, "").unwrap();
            let lhs_eq_rhs = ctx
                .builder
                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, lhs_dim_sz, rhs_dim_sz, "")
                .unwrap();
            let is_compatible = ctx.builder.build_or(lhs_or_rhs_eqz, lhs_eq_rhs, "").unwrap();
            ctx.make_assert(
                generator,
                is_compatible,
                "0:ValueError",
                "operands could not be broadcast together",
                [None, None, None],
                ctx.current_loc,
            );
            Ok(())
        },
        llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
    )
    .unwrap();
    let max_ndims = llvm_intrinsics::call_int_umax(ctx, lhs_ndims, rhs_ndims, None);
    let lhs_dims = lhs.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
    let lhs_ndims = lhs.load_ndims(ctx);
    let rhs_dims = rhs.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
    let rhs_ndims = rhs.load_ndims(ctx);
    let out_dims = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_usize, max_ndims, "").unwrap();
    let out_dims = ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(out_dims, max_ndims, None);
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(
            ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn,
            &[
                lhs_dims.into(),
                lhs_ndims.into(),
                rhs_dims.into(),
                rhs_ndims.into(),
                out_dims.base_ptr(ctx, generator).into(),
            ],
            "",
        )
        .unwrap();
    TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
        out_dims,
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into_int_value()),
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into()),
    )
 }
 /// Generates a call to `__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx`. Returns an [`ArrayAllocaValue`]
 /// containing the indices used for accessing `array` corresponding to the index of the broadcasted
 /// array `broadcast_idx`.
 pub fn call_ndarray_calc_broadcast_index<
    'ctx,
    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
    BroadcastIdx: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx>,
 >(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    array: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    broadcast_idx: &BroadcastIdx,
 ) -> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let llvm_pi32 = llvm_i32.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_pusize = llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name = match llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
        32 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx",
        64 => "__nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx64",
        bw => codegen_unreachable!(ctx, "Unsupported size type bit width: {}", bw),
    };
    let ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn =
        ctx.module.get_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
            let fn_type = llvm_usize.fn_type(
                &[llvm_pusize.into(), llvm_usize.into(), llvm_pi32.into(), llvm_pi32.into()],
                false,
            );
            ctx.module.add_function(ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn_name, fn_type, None)
        });
    let broadcast_size = broadcast_idx.size(ctx, generator);
    let out_idx = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_i32, broadcast_size, "").unwrap();
    let array_dims = array.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
    let array_ndims = array.load_ndims(ctx);
    let broadcast_idx_ptr = unsafe {
        broadcast_idx.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, &llvm_usize.const_zero(), None)
    };
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(
            ndarray_calc_broadcast_fn,
            &[array_dims.into(), array_ndims.into(), broadcast_idx_ptr.into(), out_idx.into()],
            "",
        )
        .unwrap();
    TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
        ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(out_idx, broadcast_size, None),
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into_int_value()),
        Box::new(|_, v| v.into()),
    )
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/range.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/range.rs
@ -1,42 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, IntValue},
    IntPredicate,
 };
 use itertools::Either;
 use crate::codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
 pub fn calculate_len_for_slice_range<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    start: IntValue<'ctx>,
    end: IntValue<'ctx>,
    step: IntValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    const SYMBOL: &str = "__nac3_range_slice_len";
    let len_func = ctx.module.get_function(SYMBOL).unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let i32_t = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
        let fn_t = i32_t.fn_type(&[i32_t.into(), i32_t.into(), i32_t.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function(SYMBOL, fn_t, None)
    });
    // assert step != 0, throw exception if not
    let not_zero = ctx
        .builder
        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, step, step.get_type().const_zero(), "range_step_ne")
        .unwrap();
    ctx.make_assert(
        generator,
        not_zero,
        "0:ValueError",
        "step must not be zero",
        [None, None, None],
        ctx.current_loc,
    );
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(len_func, &[start.into(), end.into(), step.into()], "calc_len")
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/slice.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/slice.rs
@ -1,39 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, IntValue};
 use itertools::Either;
 use nac3parser::ast::Expr;
 use crate::{
    codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
    typecheck::typedef::Type,
 };
 /// this function allows index out of range, since python
 /// allows index out of range in slice (`a = [1,2,3]; a[1:10] == [2,3]`).
 pub fn handle_slice_index_bound<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
    i: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    generator: &mut G,
    length: IntValue<'ctx>,
 ) -> Result<Option<IntValue<'ctx>>, String> {
    const SYMBOL: &str = "__nac3_slice_index_bound";
    let func = ctx.module.get_function(SYMBOL).unwrap_or_else(|| {
        let i32_t = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
        let fn_t = i32_t.fn_type(&[i32_t.into(), i32_t.into()], false);
        ctx.module.add_function(SYMBOL, fn_t, None)
    });
    let i = if let Some(v) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, i)? {
        v.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, i.custom.unwrap())?
    } else {
        return Ok(None);
    };
    Ok(Some(
        ctx.builder
            .build_call(func, &[i.into(), length.into()], "bounded_ind")
            .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
            .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
            .map(Either::unwrap_left)
            .unwrap(),
    ))
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/llvm_intrinsics.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/llvm_intrinsics.rs
@ -1,14 +1,12 @@
-use inkwell::{
+use crate::codegen::CodeGenContext;
-    context::Context,
+use inkwell::context::Context;
-    intrinsics::Intrinsic,
+use inkwell::intrinsics::Intrinsic;
-    types::{AnyTypeEnum::IntType, FloatType},
+use inkwell::types::AnyTypeEnum::IntType;
-    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue},
+use inkwell::types::FloatType;
-    AddressSpace,
+use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue};
-};
+use inkwell::AddressSpace;
 use itertools::Either;
 use super::CodeGenContext;
 /// Returns the string representation for the floating-point type `ft` when used in intrinsic
 /// functions.
 fn get_float_intrinsic_repr(ctx: &Context, ft: FloatType) -> &'static str {
@ -201,49 +199,6 @@ pub fn call_memcpy_generic<'ctx>(
    call_memcpy(ctx, dest, src, len, is_volatile);
 }
 /// Invokes the `llvm.memcpy` intrinsic.
 ///
 /// Unlike [`call_memcpy`], this function accepts any type of pointer value. If `dest` or `src` is
 /// not a pointer to an integer, the pointer(s) will be cast to `i8*` before invoking `memcpy`.
 /// Moreover, `len` now refers to the number of elements to copy (rather than number of bytes to
 /// copy).
 pub fn call_memcpy_generic_array<'ctx>(
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    dest: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    src: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    len: IntValue<'ctx>,
    is_volatile: IntValue<'ctx>,
 ) {
    let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
    let llvm_p0i8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_sizeof_expr_t = llvm_i8.size_of().get_type();
    let dest_elem_t = dest.get_type().get_element_type();
    let src_elem_t = src.get_type().get_element_type();
    let dest = if matches!(dest_elem_t, IntType(t) if t.get_bit_width() == 8) {
        dest
    } else {
        ctx.builder
            .build_bit_cast(dest, llvm_p0i8, "")
            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
            .unwrap()
    };
    let src = if matches!(src_elem_t, IntType(t) if t.get_bit_width() == 8) {
        src
    } else {
        ctx.builder
            .build_bit_cast(src, llvm_p0i8, "")
            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
            .unwrap()
    };
    let len = ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(len, llvm_sizeof_expr_t, "").unwrap();
    let len = ctx.builder.build_int_mul(len, src_elem_t.size_of().unwrap(), "").unwrap();
    call_memcpy(ctx, dest, src, len, is_volatile);
 }
 /// Macro to find and generate build call for llvm intrinsic (body of llvm intrinsic function)
 ///
 /// Arguments:
@ -386,25 +341,3 @@ pub fn call_float_powi<'ctx>(
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
 /// Invokes the [`llvm.ctpop`](https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#llvm-ctpop-intrinsic) intrinsic.
 pub fn call_int_ctpop<'ctx>(
    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    src: IntValue<'ctx>,
    name: Option<&str>,
 ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    const FN_NAME: &str = "llvm.ctpop";
    let llvm_src_t = src.get_type();
    let intrinsic_fn = Intrinsic::find(FN_NAME)
        .and_then(|intrinsic| intrinsic.get_declaration(&ctx.module, &[llvm_src_t.into()]))
        .unwrap();
    ctx.builder
        .build_call(intrinsic_fn, &[src.into()], name.unwrap_or_default())
        .map(CallSiteValue::try_as_basic_value)
        .map(|v| v.map_left(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
        .map(Either::unwrap_left)
        .unwrap()
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/mod.rs
@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
-use std::{
+use crate::{
-    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+    codegen::classes::{ListType, NDArrayType, ProxyType, RangeType},
-    sync::{
+    symbol_resolver::{StaticValue, SymbolResolver},
-        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef},
-        Arc,
+    typecheck::{
        type_inferencer::{CodeLocation, PrimitiveStore},
        typedef::{CallId, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier},
    },
    thread,
 };
 use crossbeam::channel::{unbounded, Receiver, Sender};
 use inkwell::{
    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
@ -24,27 +24,17 @@ use inkwell::{
    AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use parking_lot::{Condvar, Mutex};
 use nac3parser::ast::{Location, Stmt, StrRef};
-
+use parking_lot::{Condvar, Mutex};
-use crate::{
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
-    symbol_resolver::{StaticValue, SymbolResolver},
+use std::sync::{
-    toplevel::{
+    atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
-        helper::{extract_ndims, PrimDef},
+    Arc,
        numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys,
        TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef,
    },
    typecheck::{
        type_inferencer::{CodeLocation, PrimitiveStore},
        typedef::{CallId, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier},
    },
 };
-use concrete_type::{ConcreteType, ConcreteTypeEnum, ConcreteTypeStore};
+use std::thread;
 pub use generator::{CodeGenerator, DefaultCodeGenerator};
 use types::{ndarray::NDArrayType, ListType, ProxyType, RangeType};
 pub mod builtin_fns;
 pub mod classes;
 pub mod concrete_type;
 pub mod expr;
 pub mod extern_fns;
@ -53,12 +43,13 @@ pub mod irrt;
 pub mod llvm_intrinsics;
 pub mod numpy;
 pub mod stmt;
 pub mod types;
 pub mod values;
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test;
 use concrete_type::{ConcreteType, ConcreteTypeEnum, ConcreteTypeStore};
 pub use generator::{CodeGenerator, DefaultCodeGenerator};
 mod macros {
    /// Codegen-variant of [`std::unreachable`] which accepts an instance of [`CodeGenContext`] as
    /// its first argument to provide Python source information to indicate the codegen location
@ -514,13 +505,12 @@ fn get_llvm_type<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
                        }
                        TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
-                            let (dtype, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(unifier, ty);
+                            let (dtype, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(unifier, ty);
                            let ndims = extract_ndims(unifier, ndims);
                            let element_type = get_llvm_type(
                                ctx, module, generator, unifier, top_level, type_cache, dtype,
                            );
-                            NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx, element_type, Some(ndims)).as_base_type().into()
+                            NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx, element_type).as_base_type().into()
                        }
                        _ => unreachable!(
@ -858,9 +848,10 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<
    builder.position_at_end(init_bb);
    let body_bb = context.append_basic_block(fn_val, "body");
    // Store non-vararg argument values into local variables
    let mut var_assignment = HashMap::new();
    let offset = u32::from(has_sret);
    // Store non-vararg argument values into local variables
    for (n, arg) in args.iter().enumerate().filter(|(_, arg)| !arg.is_vararg) {
        let param = fn_val.get_nth_param((n as u32) + offset).unwrap();
        let local_type = get_llvm_type(
@ -1124,106 +1115,3 @@ fn gen_in_range_check<'ctx>(
 fn get_va_count_arg_name(arg_name: StrRef) -> StrRef {
    format!("__{}_va_count", &arg_name).into()
 }
 /// Returns the alignment of the type.
 ///
 /// This is necessary as `get_alignment` is not implemented as part of [`BasicType`].
 pub fn get_type_alignment<'ctx>(ty: impl Into<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
    match ty.into() {
        BasicTypeEnum::ArrayType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
        BasicTypeEnum::FloatType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
        BasicTypeEnum::IntType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
        BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
        BasicTypeEnum::StructType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
        BasicTypeEnum::VectorType(ty) => ty.get_alignment(),
    }
 }
 /// Inserts an `alloca` instruction with allocation `size` given in bytes and the alignment of the
 /// given type.
 ///
 /// The returned [`PointerValue`] will have a type of `i8*`, a size of at least `size`, and will be
 /// aligned with the alignment of `align_ty`.
 pub fn type_aligned_alloca<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
    generator: &mut G,
    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    align_ty: impl Into<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
    size: IntValue<'ctx>,
    name: Option<&str>,
 ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
    /// Round `val` up to its modulo `power_of_two`.
    fn round_up<'ctx>(
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        val: IntValue<'ctx>,
        power_of_two: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        debug_assert_eq!(
            val.get_type().get_bit_width(),
            power_of_two.get_type().get_bit_width(),
            "`val` ({}) and `power_of_two` ({}) must be the same type",
            val.get_type(),
            power_of_two.get_type(),
        );
        let llvm_val_t = val.get_type();
        let max_rem =
            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(power_of_two, llvm_val_t.const_int(1, false), "").unwrap();
        ctx.builder
            .build_and(
                ctx.builder.build_int_add(val, max_rem, "").unwrap(),
                ctx.builder.build_not(max_rem, "").unwrap(),
                "",
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    let llvm_i8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
    let llvm_pi8 = llvm_i8.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
    let align_ty = align_ty.into();
    let size = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(size, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
    debug_assert_eq!(
        size.get_type().get_bit_width(),
        llvm_usize.get_bit_width(),
        "Expected size_t ({}) for parameter `size` of `aligned_alloca`, got {}",
        llvm_usize,
        size.get_type(),
    );
    let alignment = get_type_alignment(align_ty);
    let alignment = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(alignment, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
    if ctx.registry.llvm_options.opt_level == OptimizationLevel::None {
        let alignment_bitcount = llvm_intrinsics::call_int_ctpop(ctx, alignment, None);
        ctx.make_assert(
            generator,
            ctx.builder
                .build_int_compare(
                    IntPredicate::EQ,
                    alignment_bitcount,
                    alignment_bitcount.get_type().const_int(1, false),
                    "",
                )
                .unwrap(),
            "0:AssertionError",
            "Expected power-of-two alignment for aligned_alloca, got {0}",
            [Some(alignment), None, None],
            ctx.current_loc,
        );
    }
    let buffer_size = round_up(ctx, size, alignment);
    let aligned_slices = ctx.builder.build_int_unsigned_div(buffer_size, alignment, "").unwrap();
    // Just to be absolutely sure, alloca in [i8 x alignment] slices
    let buffer = ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(align_ty, aligned_slices, "").unwrap();
    ctx.builder
        .build_bit_cast(buffer, llvm_pi8, name.unwrap_or_default())
        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
        .unwrap()
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/numpy.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/numpy.rs
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/stmt.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/stmt.rs
@ -1,22 +1,9 @@
 use inkwell::{
    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
    basic_block::BasicBlock,
    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, FunctionValue, IntValue, PointerValue},
    IntPredicate,
 };
 use itertools::{izip, Itertools};
 use nac3parser::ast::{
    Constant, ExcepthandlerKind, Expr, ExprKind, Location, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef,
 };
 use super::{
    classes::{ArrayLikeIndexer, ArraySliceValue, ListValue, RangeValue},
    expr::{destructure_range, gen_binop_expr},
    gen_in_range_check,
    irrt::{handle_slice_indices, list_slice_assignment},
    macros::codegen_unreachable,
    values::{ArrayLikeIndexer, ArraySliceValue, ListValue, RangeValue},
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 use crate::{
@ -27,6 +14,17 @@ use crate::{
        typedef::{iter_type_vars, FunSignature, Type, TypeEnum},
    },
 };
 use inkwell::{
    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
    basic_block::BasicBlock,
    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, FunctionValue, IntValue, PointerValue},
    IntPredicate,
 };
 use itertools::{izip, Itertools};
 use nac3parser::ast::{
    Constant, ExcepthandlerKind, Expr, ExprKind, Location, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef,
 };
 /// See [`CodeGenerator::gen_var_alloc`].
 pub fn gen_var<'ctx>(
@ -310,7 +308,7 @@ pub fn gen_setitem<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                .unwrap()
                .to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, target_ty)?
                .into_pointer_value();
-            let target = ListValue::from_pointer_value(target, llvm_usize, None);
+            let target = ListValue::from_ptr_val(target, llvm_usize, None);
            if let ExprKind::Slice { .. } = &key.node {
                // Handle assigning to a slice
@ -331,7 +329,7 @@ pub fn gen_setitem<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                let value =
                    value.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, value_ty)?.into_pointer_value();
-                let value = ListValue::from_pointer_value(value, llvm_usize, None);
+                let value = ListValue::from_ptr_val(value, llvm_usize, None);
                let target_item_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, target_item_ty);
                let Some(src_ind) = handle_slice_indices(
@ -463,8 +461,7 @@ pub fn gen_for<G: CodeGenerator>(
        TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. }
            if *obj_id == ctx.primitives.range.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).unwrap() =>
        {
-            let iter_val =
+            let iter_val = RangeValue::from_ptr_val(iter_val.into_pointer_value(), Some("range"));
                RangeValue::from_pointer_value(iter_val.into_pointer_value(), Some("range"));
            // Internal variable for loop; Cannot be assigned
            let i = generator.gen_var_alloc(ctx, int32.into(), Some("for.i.addr"))?;
            // Variable declared in "target" expression of the loop; Can be reassigned *or* shadowed
@ -1829,37 +1826,6 @@ pub fn gen_stmt<G: CodeGenerator>(
                stmt.location,
            );
        }
        StmtKind::Global { names, .. } => {
            let registered_globals = ctx
                .top_level
                .definitions
                .read()
                .iter()
                .filter_map(|def| {
                    if let TopLevelDef::Variable { simple_name, ty, .. } = &*def.read() {
                        Some((*simple_name, *ty))
                    } else {
                        None
                    }
                })
                .collect_vec();
            for id in names {
                let Some((_, ty)) = registered_globals.iter().find(|(name, _)| name == id) else {
                    return Err(format!("{id} is not a global at {}", stmt.location));
                };
                let resolver = ctx.resolver.clone();
                let ptr = resolver
                    .get_symbol_value(*id, ctx, generator)
                    .map(|val| val.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, *ty))
                    .transpose()?
                    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
                    .unwrap();
                ctx.var_assignment.insert(*id, (ptr, None, 0));
            }
        }
        _ => unimplemented!(),
    };
    Ok(())
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/test.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/test.rs
@ -1,37 +1,34 @@
 use std::{
    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
    sync::Arc,
 };
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use indoc::indoc;
 use inkwell::{
    targets::{InitializationConfig, Target},
    OptimizationLevel,
 };
 use nac3parser::{
    ast::{fold::Fold, FileName, StrRef},
    parser::parse_program,
 };
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
 use super::{
    concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore,
    types::{ndarray::NDArrayType, ListType, ProxyType, RangeType},
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenLLVMOptions, CodeGenTargetMachineOptions, CodeGenTask, CodeGenerator,
    DefaultCodeGenerator, WithCall, WorkerRegistry,
 };
 use crate::{
    codegen::{
        classes::{ListType, NDArrayType, ProxyType, RangeType},
        concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore,
        CodeGenContext, CodeGenLLVMOptions, CodeGenTargetMachineOptions, CodeGenTask,
        CodeGenerator, DefaultCodeGenerator, WithCall, WorkerRegistry,
    },
    symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, ValueEnum},
    toplevel::{
        composer::{ComposerConfig, TopLevelComposer},
        DefinitionId, FunInstance, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef,
    },
    typecheck::{
-        type_inferencer::{FunctionData, IdentifierInfo, Inferencer, PrimitiveStore},
+        type_inferencer::{FunctionData, Inferencer, PrimitiveStore},
        typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
    },
 };
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use indoc::indoc;
 use inkwell::{
    targets::{InitializationConfig, Target},
    OptimizationLevel,
 };
 use nac3parser::ast::FileName;
 use nac3parser::{
    ast::{fold::Fold, StrRef},
    parser::parse_program,
 };
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
 use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 struct Resolver {
    id_to_type: HashMap<StrRef, Type>,
@ -67,7 +64,6 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
        &self,
        _: StrRef,
        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
    ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>> {
        unimplemented!()
    }
@ -142,8 +138,7 @@ fn test_primitives() {
    };
    let mut virtual_checks = Vec::new();
    let mut calls = HashMap::new();
-    let mut identifiers: HashMap<_, _> =
+    let mut identifiers: HashSet<_> = ["a".into(), "b".into()].into();
        ["a".into(), "b".into()].map(|id| (id, IdentifierInfo::default())).into();
    let mut inferencer = Inferencer {
        top_level: &top_level,
        function_data: &mut function_data,
@ -322,8 +317,7 @@ fn test_simple_call() {
    };
    let mut virtual_checks = Vec::new();
    let mut calls = HashMap::new();
-    let mut identifiers: HashMap<_, _> =
+    let mut identifiers: HashSet<_> = ["a".into(), "foo".into()].into();
        ["a".into(), "foo".into()].map(|id| (id, IdentifierInfo::default())).into();
    let mut inferencer = Inferencer {
        top_level: &top_level,
        function_data: &mut function_data,
@ -452,7 +446,7 @@ fn test_classes_list_type_new() {
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(&ctx);
    let llvm_list = ListType::new(&generator, &ctx, llvm_i32.into());
-    assert!(ListType::is_representable(llvm_list.as_base_type(), llvm_usize).is_ok());
+    assert!(ListType::is_type(llvm_list.as_base_type(), llvm_usize).is_ok());
 }
 #[test]
@ -460,7 +454,7 @@ fn test_classes_range_type_new() {
    let ctx = inkwell::context::Context::create();
    let llvm_range = RangeType::new(&ctx);
-    assert!(RangeType::is_representable(llvm_range.as_base_type()).is_ok());
+    assert!(RangeType::is_type(llvm_range.as_base_type()).is_ok());
 }
 #[test]
@ -471,6 +465,6 @@ fn test_classes_ndarray_type_new() {
    let llvm_i32 = ctx.i32_type();
    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(&ctx);
-    let llvm_ndarray = NDArrayType::new(&generator, &ctx, llvm_i32.into(), None);
+    let llvm_ndarray = NDArrayType::new(&generator, &ctx, llvm_i32.into());
-    assert!(NDArrayType::is_representable(llvm_ndarray.as_base_type(), llvm_usize).is_ok());
+    assert!(NDArrayType::is_type(llvm_ndarray.as_base_type(), llvm_usize).is_ok());
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/types/list.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/types/list.rs
@ -1,206 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    context::Context,
    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
    values::IntValue,
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use super::ProxyType;
 use crate::codegen::{
    values::{ArraySliceValue, ListValue, ProxyValue},
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 /// Proxy type for a `list` type in LLVM.
 #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct ListType<'ctx> {
    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> ListType<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `list` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
    pub fn is_representable(
        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        let llvm_list_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_list_ty) = llvm_list_ty else {
            return Err(format!("Expected struct type for `list` type, got {llvm_list_ty}"));
        };
        if llvm_list_ty.count_fields() != 2 {
            return Err(format!(
                "Expected 2 fields in `list`, got {}",
                llvm_list_ty.count_fields()
            ));
        }
        let list_size_ty = llvm_list_ty.get_field_type_at_index(0).unwrap();
        let Ok(_) = PointerType::try_from(list_size_ty) else {
            return Err(format!("Expected pointer type for `list.0`, got {list_size_ty}"));
        };
        let list_data_ty = llvm_list_ty.get_field_type_at_index(1).unwrap();
        let Ok(list_data_ty) = IntType::try_from(list_data_ty) else {
            return Err(format!("Expected int type for `list.1`, got {list_data_ty}"));
        };
        if list_data_ty.get_bit_width() != llvm_usize.get_bit_width() {
            return Err(format!(
                "Expected {}-bit int type for `list.1`, got {}-bit int",
                llvm_usize.get_bit_width(),
                list_data_ty.get_bit_width()
            ));
        }
        Ok(())
    }
    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of a `List`.
    #[must_use]
    fn llvm_type(
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        element_type: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
        // struct List { data: T*, size: size_t }
        let field_tys = [element_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(), llvm_usize.into()];
        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
    }
    /// Creates an instance of [`ListType`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        element_type: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
    ) -> Self {
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
        let llvm_list = Self::llvm_type(ctx, element_type, llvm_usize);
        ListType::from_type(llvm_list, llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an [`ListType`] from a [`PointerType`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_type(ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        ListType { ty: ptr_ty, llvm_usize }
    }
    /// Returns the type of the `size` field of this `list` type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn size_type(&self) -> IntType<'ctx> {
        self.as_base_type()
            .get_element_type()
            .into_struct_type()
            .get_field_type_at_index(1)
            .map(BasicTypeEnum::into_int_type)
            .unwrap()
    }
    /// Returns the element type of this `list` type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn element_type(&self) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
        self.as_base_type()
            .get_element_type()
            .into_struct_type()
            .get_field_type_at_index(0)
            .map(BasicTypeEnum::into_pointer_type)
            .map(PointerType::get_element_type)
            .unwrap()
    }
    /// Allocates an instance of [`ListValue`] as if by calling `alloca` on the base type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
            self.llvm_usize,
            name,
        )
    }
    /// Converts an existing value into a [`ListValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn map_value(
        &self,
        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(value, self.llvm_usize, name)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for ListType<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
    type Value = ListValue<'ctx>;
    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
        } else {
            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
        }
    }
    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
    }
    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
        generator
            .gen_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
        generator
            .gen_array_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                size,
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.ty
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<ListType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: ListType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_type()
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/types/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/types/mod.rs
@ -1,76 +0,0 @@
 //! This module contains abstraction over all intrinsic composite types of NAC3.
 //!
 //! # `raw_alloca` vs `alloca` vs `construct`
 //!
 //! There are three ways of creating a new object instance using the abstractions provided by this
 //! module.
 //!
 //! - `raw_alloca`: Allocates the object on the stack, returning an instance of
 //!   [`impl BasicValue`][inkwell::values::BasicValue]. This is similar to a `malloc` expression in
 //!   C++ but the object is allocated on the stack.
 //! - `alloca`: Similar to `raw_alloca`, but also wraps the allocated object with
 //!   [`<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value`][ProxyValue], and returns the wrapped object. The returned
 //!   object will not initialize any value or fields. This is similar to a type-safe `malloc`
 //!   expression in C++ but the object is allocated on the stack.
 //! - `construct`: Similar to `alloca`, but performs some initialization on the value or fields of
 //!   the returned object. This is similar to a `new` expression in C++ but the object is allocated
 //!   on the stack.
 use inkwell::{context::Context, types::BasicType, values::IntValue};
 use super::{
    values::{ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue},
    {CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
 };
 pub use list::*;
 pub use range::*;
 mod list;
 pub mod ndarray;
 mod range;
 pub mod structure;
 pub mod utils;
 /// A LLVM type that is used to represent a corresponding type in NAC3.
 pub trait ProxyType<'ctx>: Into<Self::Base> {
    /// The LLVM type of which values of this type possess. This is usually a
    /// [LLVM pointer type][PointerType] for any non-primitive types.
    type Base: BasicType<'ctx>;
    /// The type of values represented by this type.
    type Value: ProxyValue<'ctx, Type = Self>;
    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String>;
    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` can be represented by this [`ProxyType`].
    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
    ) -> Result<(), String>;
    /// Creates a new value of this type, returning the LLVM instance of this value.
    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base;
    /// Creates a new array value of this type, returning an [`ArraySliceValue`] encapsulating the
    /// resulting array.
    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx>;
    /// Returns the [base type][Self::Base] of this proxy.
    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base;
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/contiguous.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/contiguous.rs
@ -1,257 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    context::Context,
    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 use crate::{
    codegen::{
        types::{
            structure::{
                check_struct_type_matches_fields, FieldIndexCounter, StructField, StructFields,
            },
            ProxyType,
        },
        values::{ndarray::ContiguousNDArrayValue, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue},
        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
    },
    toplevel::numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys,
    typecheck::typedef::Type,
 };
 #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx> {
    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
    item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
 }
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct ContiguousNDArrayFields<'ctx> {
    #[value_type(usize)]
    pub ndims: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    pub shape: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    pub data: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> ContiguousNDArrayFields<'ctx> {
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new_typed(item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        let mut counter = FieldIndexCounter::default();
        ContiguousNDArrayFields {
            ndims: StructField::create(&mut counter, "ndims", llvm_usize),
            shape: StructField::create(
                &mut counter,
                "shape",
                llvm_usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
            ),
            data: StructField::create(&mut counter, "data", item.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())),
        }
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `ndarray` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
    pub fn is_representable(
        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        let ctx = llvm_ty.get_context();
        let llvm_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_ty) = llvm_ty else {
            return Err(format!(
                "Expected struct type for `ContiguousNDArray` type, got {llvm_ty}"
            ));
        };
        let fields = ContiguousNDArrayFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize);
        check_struct_type_matches_fields(
            fields,
            llvm_ty,
            "ContiguousNDArray",
            &[(fields.data.name(), &|ty| {
                if ty.is_pointer_type() {
                    Ok(())
                } else {
                    Err(format!("Expected T* for `ContiguousNDArray.data`, got {ty}"))
                }
            })],
        )
    }
    /// Returns an instance of [`StructFields`] containing all field accessors for this type.
    #[must_use]
    fn fields(
        item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> ContiguousNDArrayFields<'ctx> {
        ContiguousNDArrayFields::new_typed(item, llvm_usize)
    }
    /// See [`NDArrayType::fields`].
    // TODO: Move this into e.g. StructProxyType
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_fields(&self) -> ContiguousNDArrayFields<'ctx> {
        Self::fields(self.item, self.llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of an `NDArray`.
    #[must_use]
    fn llvm_type(
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
        let field_tys =
            Self::fields(item, llvm_usize).into_iter().map(|field| field.1).collect_vec();
        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
    }
    /// Creates an instance of [`ContiguousNDArrayType`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
    ) -> Self {
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
        let llvm_cndarray = Self::llvm_type(ctx, item, llvm_usize);
        Self { ty: llvm_cndarray, item, llvm_usize }
    }
    /// Creates an [`ContiguousNDArrayType`] from a [unifier type][Type].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_unifier_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        ty: Type,
    ) -> Self {
        let (dtype, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ty);
        let llvm_dtype = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, dtype);
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
        Self { ty: Self::llvm_type(ctx.ctx, llvm_dtype, llvm_usize), item: llvm_dtype, llvm_usize }
    }
    /// Creates an [`ContiguousNDArrayType`] from a [`PointerType`] representing an `NDArray`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_type(
        ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
        item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        Self { ty: ptr_ty, item, llvm_usize }
    }
    /// Allocates an instance of [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] as if by calling `alloca` on the base type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
            self.item,
            self.llvm_usize,
            name,
        )
    }
    /// Converts an existing value into a [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn map_value(
        &self,
        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            value,
            self.item,
            self.llvm_usize,
            name,
        )
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
    type Value = ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx>;
    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
        } else {
            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
        }
    }
    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
    }
    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
        generator
            .gen_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
        generator
            .gen_array_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                size,
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.ty
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_type()
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/indexing.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/indexing.rs
@ -1,215 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    context::{AsContextRef, Context},
    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 use crate::codegen::{
    types::{
        structure::{check_struct_type_matches_fields, StructField, StructFields},
        ProxyType,
    },
    values::{
        ndarray::{NDIndexValue, RustNDIndex},
        ArrayLikeIndexer, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue,
    },
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct NDIndexType<'ctx> {
    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
 }
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct NDIndexStructFields<'ctx> {
    #[value_type(i8_type())]
    pub type_: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    pub data: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> NDIndexType<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `ndindex` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
    pub fn is_representable(
        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        let ctx = llvm_ty.get_context();
        let llvm_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_ty) = llvm_ty else {
            return Err(format!(
                "Expected struct type for `ContiguousNDArray` type, got {llvm_ty}"
            ));
        };
        let fields = NDIndexStructFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize);
        check_struct_type_matches_fields(fields, llvm_ty, "NDIndex", &[])
    }
    #[must_use]
    fn fields(
        ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> NDIndexStructFields<'ctx> {
        NDIndexStructFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize)
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_fields(&self) -> NDIndexStructFields<'ctx> {
        Self::fields(self.ty.get_context(), self.llvm_usize)
    }
    #[must_use]
    fn llvm_type(ctx: &'ctx Context, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
        let field_tys =
            Self::fields(ctx, llvm_usize).into_iter().map(|field| field.1).collect_vec();
        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(generator: &G, ctx: &'ctx Context) -> Self {
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
        let llvm_ndindex = Self::llvm_type(ctx, llvm_usize);
        Self { ty: llvm_ndindex, llvm_usize }
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_type(ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        Self { ty: ptr_ty, llvm_usize }
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
            self.llvm_usize,
            name,
        )
    }
    /// Serialize a list of [`RustNDIndex`] as a newly allocated LLVM array of [`NDIndexValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn construct_ndindices<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        in_ndindices: &[RustNDIndex<'ctx>],
    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
        // Allocate the LLVM ndindices.
        let num_ndindices = self.llvm_usize.const_int(in_ndindices.len() as u64, false);
        let ndindices = self.array_alloca(generator, ctx, num_ndindices, None);
        // Initialize all of them.
        for (i, in_ndindex) in in_ndindices.iter().enumerate() {
            let pndindex = unsafe {
                ndindices.ptr_offset_unchecked(
                    ctx,
                    generator,
                    &ctx.ctx.i64_type().const_int(u64::try_from(i).unwrap(), false),
                    None,
                )
            };
            in_ndindex.write_to_ndindex(
                generator,
                ctx,
                NDIndexValue::from_pointer_value(pndindex, self.llvm_usize, None),
            );
        }
        ndindices
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn map_value(
        &self,
        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(value, self.llvm_usize, name)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for NDIndexType<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
    type Value = NDIndexValue<'ctx>;
    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
        } else {
            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
        }
    }
    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
    }
    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
        generator
            .gen_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
        generator
            .gen_array_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                size,
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.ty
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<NDIndexType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: NDIndexType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_type()
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/mod.rs
@ -1,469 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    context::{AsContextRef, Context},
    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
    values::{BasicValue, IntValue, PointerValue},
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 use super::{
    structure::{check_struct_type_matches_fields, StructField, StructFields},
    ProxyType,
 };
 use crate::{
    codegen::{
        values::{ndarray::NDArrayValue, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue, TypedArrayLikeMutator},
        {CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
    },
    toplevel::{helper::extract_ndims, numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys},
    typecheck::typedef::Type,
 };
 pub use contiguous::*;
 pub use indexing::*;
 pub use nditer::*;
 mod contiguous;
 mod indexing;
 mod nditer;
 /// Proxy type for a `ndarray` type in LLVM.
 #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct NDArrayType<'ctx> {
    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
    dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
    ndims: Option<u64>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
 }
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct NDArrayStructFields<'ctx> {
    /// The size of each `NDArray` element in bytes.
    #[value_type(usize)]
    pub itemsize: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    /// Number of dimensions in the array.
    #[value_type(usize)]
    pub ndims: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    /// Pointer to an array containing the shape of the `NDArray`.
    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    pub shape: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    /// Pointer to an array indicating the number of bytes between each element at a dimension
    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    pub strides: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    /// Pointer to an array containing the array data
    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    pub data: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> NDArrayType<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `ndarray` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
    pub fn is_representable(
        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        let ctx = llvm_ty.get_context();
        let llvm_ndarray_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_ndarray_ty) = llvm_ndarray_ty else {
            return Err(format!("Expected struct type for `NDArray` type, got {llvm_ndarray_ty}"));
        };
        check_struct_type_matches_fields(
            Self::fields(ctx, llvm_usize),
            llvm_ndarray_ty,
            "NDArray",
            &[],
        )
    }
    /// Returns an instance of [`StructFields`] containing all field accessors for this type.
    #[must_use]
    fn fields(
        ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> NDArrayStructFields<'ctx> {
        NDArrayStructFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize)
    }
    /// See [`NDArrayType::fields`].
    // TODO: Move this into e.g. StructProxyType
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_fields(&self, ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>) -> NDArrayStructFields<'ctx> {
        Self::fields(ctx, self.llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of an `NDArray`.
    #[must_use]
    fn llvm_type(ctx: &'ctx Context, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
        let field_tys =
            Self::fields(ctx, llvm_usize).into_iter().map(|field| field.1).collect_vec();
        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
    }
    /// Creates an instance of [`NDArrayType`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
        ndims: Option<u64>,
    ) -> Self {
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
        let llvm_ndarray = Self::llvm_type(ctx, llvm_usize);
        NDArrayType { ty: llvm_ndarray, dtype, ndims, llvm_usize }
    }
    /// Creates an instance of [`NDArrayType`] with `ndims` of 0.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new_unsized<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
    ) -> Self {
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
        let llvm_ndarray = Self::llvm_type(ctx, llvm_usize);
        NDArrayType { ty: llvm_ndarray, dtype, ndims: Some(0), llvm_usize }
    }
    /// Creates an [`NDArrayType`] from a [unifier type][Type].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_unifier_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        ty: Type,
    ) -> Self {
        let (dtype, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, ty);
        let llvm_dtype = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, dtype);
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
        let ndims = extract_ndims(&ctx.unifier, ndims);
        NDArrayType {
            ty: Self::llvm_type(ctx.ctx, llvm_usize),
            dtype: llvm_dtype,
            ndims: Some(ndims),
            llvm_usize,
        }
    }
    /// Creates an [`NDArrayType`] from a [`PointerType`] representing an `NDArray`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_type(
        ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
        dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
        ndims: Option<u64>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        NDArrayType { ty: ptr_ty, dtype, ndims, llvm_usize }
    }
    /// Returns the type of the `size` field of this `ndarray` type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn size_type(&self) -> IntType<'ctx> {
        self.llvm_usize
    }
    /// Returns the element type of this `ndarray` type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn element_type(&self) -> BasicTypeEnum<'ctx> {
        self.dtype
    }
    /// Returns the number of dimensions of this `ndarray` type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn ndims(&self) -> Option<u64> {
        self.ndims
    }
    /// Allocates an instance of [`NDArrayValue`] as if by calling `alloca` on the base type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
            self.dtype,
            self.ndims,
            self.llvm_usize,
            name,
        )
    }
    /// Allocates an [`NDArrayValue`] on the stack and initializes all fields as follows:
    ///
    /// - `data`: uninitialized.
    /// - `itemsize`: set to the size of `self.dtype`.
    /// - `ndims`: set to the value of  `ndims`.
    /// - `shape`: allocated on the stack with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized values.
    /// - `strides`: allocated on the stack with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized
    ///   values.
    #[must_use]
    fn construct_impl<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        let ndarray = self.alloca(generator, ctx, name);
        let itemsize = ctx
            .builder
            .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(self.dtype.size_of().unwrap(), self.llvm_usize, "")
            .unwrap();
        ndarray.store_itemsize(ctx, generator, itemsize);
        ndarray.store_ndims(ctx, generator, ndims);
        ndarray.create_shape(ctx, self.llvm_usize, ndims);
        ndarray.create_strides(ctx, self.llvm_usize, ndims);
        ndarray
    }
    /// Allocate an [`NDArrayValue`] on the stack using `dtype` and `ndims` of this [`NDArrayType`]
    /// instance.
    ///
    /// The returned ndarray's content will be:
    /// - `data`: uninitialized.
    /// - `itemsize`: set to the size of `dtype`.
    /// - `ndims`: set to the value of `self.ndims`.
    /// - `shape`: allocated on the stack with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized values.
    /// - `strides`: allocated on the stack with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized
    ///   values.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn construct_uninitialized<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        assert!(self.ndims.is_some(), "NDArrayType::construct can only be called on an instance with compile-time known ndims (self.ndims = Some(ndims))");
        let Some(ndims) = self.ndims.map(|ndims| self.llvm_usize.const_int(ndims, false)) else {
            unreachable!()
        };
        self.construct_impl(generator, ctx, ndims, name)
    }
    /// Allocate an [`NDArrayValue`] on the stack given its `ndims` and `dtype`.
    ///
    /// `shape` and `strides` will be automatically allocated onto the stack.
    ///
    /// The returned ndarray's content will be:
    /// - `data`: uninitialized.
    /// - `itemsize`: set to the size of `dtype`.
    /// - `ndims`: set to the value of `ndims`.
    /// - `shape`: allocated with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized values.
    /// - `strides`: allocated with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized values.
    #[deprecated = "Prefer construct_uninitialized or construct_*_shape."]
    #[must_use]
    pub fn construct_dyn_ndims<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        assert!(self.ndims.is_none(), "NDArrayType::construct_dyn_ndims can only be called on an instance with compile-time unknown ndims (self.ndims = None)");
        self.construct_impl(generator, ctx, ndims, name)
    }
    /// Convenience function. Allocate an [`NDArrayValue`] with a statically known shape.
    ///
    /// The returned [`NDArrayValue`]'s `data` and `strides` are uninitialized.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn construct_const_shape<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        shape: &[u64],
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        assert!(self.ndims.is_none_or(|ndims| shape.len() as u64 == ndims));
        let ndarray = Self::new(generator, ctx.ctx, self.dtype, Some(shape.len() as u64))
            .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, name);
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
        // Write shape
        let ndarray_shape = ndarray.shape();
        for (i, dim) in shape.iter().enumerate() {
            let dim = llvm_usize.const_int(*dim, false);
            unsafe {
                ndarray_shape.set_typed_unchecked(
                    ctx,
                    generator,
                    &llvm_usize.const_int(i as u64, false),
                    dim,
                );
            }
        }
        ndarray
    }
    /// Convenience function. Allocate an [`NDArrayValue`] with a dynamically known shape.
    ///
    /// The returned [`NDArrayValue`]'s `data` and `strides` are uninitialized.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn construct_dyn_shape<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        shape: &[IntValue<'ctx>],
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        assert!(self.ndims.is_none_or(|ndims| shape.len() as u64 == ndims));
        let ndarray = Self::new(generator, ctx.ctx, self.dtype, Some(shape.len() as u64))
            .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, name);
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
        // Write shape
        let ndarray_shape = ndarray.shape();
        for (i, dim) in shape.iter().enumerate() {
            assert_eq!(
                dim.get_type(),
                llvm_usize,
                "Expected {} but got {}",
                llvm_usize.print_to_string(),
                dim.get_type().print_to_string()
            );
            unsafe {
                ndarray_shape.set_typed_unchecked(
                    ctx,
                    generator,
                    &llvm_usize.const_int(i as u64, false),
                    *dim,
                );
            }
        }
        ndarray
    }
    /// Create an unsized ndarray to contain `value`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn construct_unsized<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        value: &impl BasicValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
        let value = value.as_basic_value_enum();
        assert_eq!(value.get_type(), self.dtype);
        assert!(self.ndims.is_none_or(|ndims| ndims == 0));
        // We have to put the value on the stack to get a data pointer.
        let data = ctx.builder.build_alloca(value.get_type(), "construct_unsized").unwrap();
        ctx.builder.build_store(data, value).unwrap();
        let data = ctx
            .builder
            .build_pointer_cast(data, ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
            .unwrap();
        let ndarray = Self::new_unsized(generator, ctx.ctx, value.get_type())
            .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, name);
        ctx.builder.build_store(ndarray.ptr_to_data(ctx), data).unwrap();
        ndarray
    }
    /// Converts an existing value into a [`NDArrayValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn map_value(
        &self,
        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            value,
            self.dtype,
            self.ndims,
            self.llvm_usize,
            name,
        )
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for NDArrayType<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
    type Value = NDArrayValue<'ctx>;
    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
        } else {
            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
        }
    }
    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
    }
    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
        generator
            .gen_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
        generator
            .gen_array_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                size,
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.ty
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<NDArrayType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: NDArrayType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_type()
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/nditer.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/types/ndarray/nditer.rs
@ -1,241 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    context::{AsContextRef, Context},
    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 use super::ProxyType;
 use crate::codegen::{
    irrt,
    types::structure::{check_struct_type_matches_fields, StructField, StructFields},
    values::{
        ndarray::{NDArrayValue, NDIterValue},
        ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue,
    },
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct NDIterType<'ctx> {
    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
 }
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct NDIterStructFields<'ctx> {
    #[value_type(usize)]
    pub ndims: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    pub shape: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    pub strides: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    pub indices: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize)]
    pub nth: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()))]
    pub element: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize)]
    pub size: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> NDIterType<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `nditer` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
    pub fn is_representable(
        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        let ctx = llvm_ty.get_context();
        let llvm_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_ndarray_ty) = llvm_ty else {
            return Err(format!("Expected struct type for `NDIter` type, got {llvm_ty}"));
        };
        check_struct_type_matches_fields(
            Self::fields(ctx, llvm_usize),
            llvm_ndarray_ty,
            "NDIter",
            &[],
        )
    }
    /// Returns an instance of [`StructFields`] containing all field accessors for this type.
    #[must_use]
    fn fields(ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> NDIterStructFields<'ctx> {
        NDIterStructFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize)
    }
    /// See [`NDIterType::fields`].
    // TODO: Move this into e.g. StructProxyType
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_fields(&self, ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>) -> NDIterStructFields<'ctx> {
        Self::fields(ctx, self.llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of an `NDIter`.
    #[must_use]
    fn llvm_type(ctx: &'ctx Context, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
        let field_tys =
            Self::fields(ctx, llvm_usize).into_iter().map(|field| field.1).collect_vec();
        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
    }
    /// Creates an instance of [`NDIter`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(generator: &G, ctx: &'ctx Context) -> Self {
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
        let llvm_nditer = Self::llvm_type(ctx, llvm_usize);
        Self { ty: llvm_nditer, llvm_usize }
    }
    /// Creates an [`NDIterType`] from a [`PointerType`] representing an `NDIter`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_type(ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        Self { ty: ptr_ty, llvm_usize }
    }
    /// Returns the type of the `size` field of this `nditer` type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn size_type(&self) -> IntType<'ctx> {
        self.llvm_usize
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        parent: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
        indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
            parent,
            indices,
            self.llvm_usize,
            name,
        )
    }
    /// Allocate an [`NDIter`] that iterates through the given `ndarray`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn construct<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        let nditer = self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, None);
        let ndims = ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
        // The caller has the responsibility to allocate 'indices' for `NDIter`.
        let indices =
            generator.gen_array_var_alloc(ctx, self.llvm_usize.into(), ndims, None).unwrap();
        let nditer = <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            nditer,
            ndarray,
            indices,
            self.llvm_usize,
            None,
        );
        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_nditer_initialize(generator, ctx, nditer, ndarray, indices);
        nditer
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn map_value(
        &self,
        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
        parent: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
        indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            value,
            parent,
            indices,
            self.llvm_usize,
            name,
        )
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for NDIterType<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
    type Value = NDIterValue<'ctx>;
    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
        } else {
            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
        }
    }
    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
    }
    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
        generator
            .gen_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
        generator
            .gen_array_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                size,
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.ty
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<NDIterType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: NDIterType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_type()
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/types/range.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/types/range.rs
@ -1,170 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    context::Context,
    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
    values::IntValue,
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use super::ProxyType;
 use crate::codegen::{
    values::{ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue, RangeValue},
    {CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
 };
 /// Proxy type for a `range` type in LLVM.
 #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct RangeType<'ctx> {
    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> RangeType<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `range` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
    pub fn is_representable(llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>) -> Result<(), String> {
        let llvm_range_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
        let AnyTypeEnum::ArrayType(llvm_range_ty) = llvm_range_ty else {
            return Err(format!("Expected array type for `range` type, got {llvm_range_ty}"));
        };
        if llvm_range_ty.len() != 3 {
            return Err(format!(
                "Expected 3 elements for `range` type, got {}",
                llvm_range_ty.len()
            ));
        }
        let llvm_range_elem_ty = llvm_range_ty.get_element_type();
        let Ok(llvm_range_elem_ty) = IntType::try_from(llvm_range_elem_ty) else {
            return Err(format!(
                "Expected int type for `range` element type, got {llvm_range_elem_ty}"
            ));
        };
        if llvm_range_elem_ty.get_bit_width() != 32 {
            return Err(format!(
                "Expected 32-bit int type for `range` element type, got {}",
                llvm_range_elem_ty.get_bit_width()
            ));
        }
        Ok(())
    }
    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of a `Range`.
    #[must_use]
    fn llvm_type(ctx: &'ctx Context) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
        // typedef int32_t Range[3];
        let llvm_i32 = ctx.i32_type();
        llvm_i32.array_type(3).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
    }
    /// Creates an instance of [`RangeType`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new(ctx: &'ctx Context) -> Self {
        let llvm_range = Self::llvm_type(ctx);
        RangeType::from_type(llvm_range)
    }
    /// Creates an [`RangeType`] from a [`PointerType`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_type(ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty).is_ok());
        RangeType { ty: ptr_ty }
    }
    /// Returns the type of all fields of this `range` type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn value_type(&self) -> IntType<'ctx> {
        self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_array_type().get_element_type().into_int_type()
    }
    /// Allocates an instance of [`RangeValue`] as if by calling `alloca` on the base type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
            name,
        )
    }
    /// Converts an existing value into a [`RangeValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn map_value(
        &self,
        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(value, name)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for RangeType<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
    type Value = RangeValue<'ctx>;
    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
        } else {
            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
        }
    }
    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        _: &G,
        _: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty)
    }
    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
        generator
            .gen_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
        generator
            .gen_array_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                size,
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.ty
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<RangeType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: RangeType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_type()
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/types/structure.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/types/structure.rs
@ -1,255 +0,0 @@
 use std::marker::PhantomData;
 use inkwell::{
    context::AsContextRef,
    types::{BasicTypeEnum, IntType, StructType},
    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue},
 };
 use crate::codegen::CodeGenContext;
 /// Trait indicating that the structure is a field-wise representation of an LLVM structure.
 ///
 /// # Usage
 ///
 /// For example, for a simple C-slice LLVM structure:
 ///
 /// ```ignore
 /// struct CSliceFields<'ctx> {
 ///     ptr: StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>>,
 ///     len: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>
 /// }
 /// ```
 pub trait StructFields<'ctx>: Eq + Copy {
    /// Creates an instance of [`StructFields`] using the given `ctx` and `size_t` types.
    fn new(ctx: impl AsContextRef<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self;
    /// Returns a [`Vec`] that contains the fields of the structure in the order as they appear in
    /// the type definition.
    #[must_use]
    fn to_vec(&self) -> Vec<(&'static str, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)>;
    /// Returns a [`Iterator`] that contains the fields of the structure in the order as they appear
    /// in the type definition.
    #[must_use]
    fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (&'static str, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)> {
        self.to_vec().into_iter()
    }
    /// Returns a [`Vec`] that contains the fields of the structure in the order as they appear in
    /// the type definition.
    #[must_use]
    fn into_vec(self) -> Vec<(&'static str, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)>
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        self.to_vec()
    }
    /// Returns a [`Iterator`] that contains the fields of the structure in the order as they appear
    /// in the type definition.
    #[must_use]
    fn into_iter(self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (&'static str, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)>
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        self.into_vec().into_iter()
    }
 }
 /// A single field of an LLVM structure.
 #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct StructField<'ctx, Value>
 where
    Value: BasicValue<'ctx> + TryFrom<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>, Error = ()>,
 {
    /// The index of this field within the structure.
    index: u32,
    /// The name of this field.
    name: &'static str,
    /// The type of this field.
    ty: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
    /// Instance of [`PhantomData`] containing [`Value`], used to implement automatic downcasts.
    _value_ty: PhantomData<Value>,
 }
 impl<'ctx, Value> StructField<'ctx, Value>
 where
    Value: BasicValue<'ctx> + TryFrom<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>, Error = ()>,
 {
    /// Creates an instance of [`StructField`].
    ///
    /// * `idx_counter` - The instance of [`FieldIndexCounter`] used to track the current field
    ///   index.
    /// * `name` - Name of the field.
    /// * `ty` - The type of this field.
    pub fn create(
        idx_counter: &mut FieldIndexCounter,
        name: &'static str,
        ty: impl Into<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
    ) -> Self {
        StructField { index: idx_counter.increment(), name, ty: ty.into(), _value_ty: PhantomData }
    }
    /// Creates an instance of [`StructField`] with a given index.
    ///
    /// * `index` - The index of this field within its enclosing structure.
    /// * `name` - Name of the field.
    /// * `ty` - The type of this field.
    pub fn create_at(index: u32, name: &'static str, ty: impl Into<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>) -> Self {
        StructField { index, name, ty: ty.into(), _value_ty: PhantomData }
    }
    /// Returns the name of this field.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn name(&self) -> &'static str {
        self.name
    }
    /// Creates a pointer to this field in an arbitrary structure by performing a `getelementptr i32
    /// {idx...}, i32 {self.index}`.
    pub fn ptr_by_array_gep(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        pobj: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        idx: &[IntValue<'ctx>],
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        unsafe {
            ctx.builder.build_in_bounds_gep(
                pobj,
                &[idx, &[ctx.ctx.i32_type().const_int(u64::from(self.index), false)]].concat(),
                "",
            )
        }
        .unwrap()
    }
    /// Creates a pointer to this field in an arbitrary structure by performing the equivalent of
    /// `getelementptr i32 0, i32 {self.index}`.
    pub fn ptr_by_gep(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        pobj: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        obj_name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        ctx.builder
            .build_struct_gep(
                pobj,
                self.index,
                &obj_name.map(|name| format!("{name}.{}.addr", self.name)).unwrap_or_default(),
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    /// Gets the value of this field for a given `obj`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_from_value(&self, obj: StructValue<'ctx>) -> Value {
        obj.get_field_at_index(self.index).and_then(|value| Value::try_from(value).ok()).unwrap()
    }
    /// Sets the value of this field for a given `obj`.
    pub fn set_for_value(&self, obj: StructValue<'ctx>, value: Value) {
        obj.set_field_at_index(self.index, value);
    }
    /// Gets the value of this field for a pointer-to-structure.
    pub fn get(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        pobj: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        obj_name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> Value {
        ctx.builder
            .build_load(
                self.ptr_by_gep(ctx, pobj, obj_name),
                &obj_name.map(|name| format!("{name}.{}", self.name)).unwrap_or_default(),
            )
            .map_err(|_| ())
            .and_then(|value| Value::try_from(value))
            .unwrap()
    }
    /// Sets the value of this field for a pointer-to-structure.
    pub fn set(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        pobj: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        value: Value,
        obj_name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) {
        ctx.builder.build_store(self.ptr_by_gep(ctx, pobj, obj_name), value).unwrap();
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx, Value> From<StructField<'ctx, Value>> for (&'static str, BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>)
 where
    Value: BasicValue<'ctx> + TryFrom<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>, Error = ()>,
 {
    fn from(value: StructField<'ctx, Value>) -> Self {
        (value.name, value.ty)
    }
 }
 /// A counter that tracks the next index of a field using a monotonically increasing counter.
 #[derive(Default, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct FieldIndexCounter(u32);
 impl FieldIndexCounter {
    /// Increments the number stored by this counter, returning the previous value.
    ///
    /// Functionally equivalent to `i++` in C-based languages.
    pub fn increment(&mut self) -> u32 {
        let v = self.0;
        self.0 += 1;
        v
    }
 }
 type FieldTypeVerifier<'ctx> = dyn Fn(BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>) -> Result<(), String>;
 /// Checks whether [`llvm_ty`][StructType] contains the fields described by the given
 /// [`StructFields`] instance.
 ///
 /// By default, this function will compare the type of each field in `expected_fields` against
 /// `llvm_ty`. To override this behavior for individual fields, pass in overrides to
 /// `custom_verifiers`, which will use the specified verifier when a field with the matching field
 /// name is being checked.
 pub(super) fn check_struct_type_matches_fields<'ctx>(
    expected_fields: impl StructFields<'ctx>,
    llvm_ty: StructType<'ctx>,
    ty_name: &'static str,
    custom_verifiers: &[(&str, &FieldTypeVerifier<'ctx>)],
 ) -> Result<(), String> {
    let expected_fields = expected_fields.to_vec();
    if llvm_ty.count_fields() != u32::try_from(expected_fields.len()).unwrap() {
        return Err(format!(
            "Expected {} fields in `{ty_name}`, got {}",
            expected_fields.len(),
            llvm_ty.count_fields(),
        ));
    }
    expected_fields
        .into_iter()
        .enumerate()
        .map(|(i, (field_name, expected_ty))| {
            (field_name, expected_ty, llvm_ty.get_field_type_at_index(i as u32).unwrap())
        })
        .try_for_each(|(field_name, expected_ty, actual_ty)| {
            if let Some((_, verifier)) =
                custom_verifiers.iter().find(|verifier| verifier.0 == field_name)
            {
                verifier(actual_ty)
            } else if expected_ty == actual_ty {
                Ok(())
            } else {
                Err(format!("Expected {expected_ty} for `{ty_name}.{field_name}`, got {actual_ty}"))
            }
        })?;
    Ok(())
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/types/utils/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/types/utils/mod.rs
@ -1,3 +0,0 @@
 pub use slice::*;
 mod slice;
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/types/utils/slice.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/types/utils/slice.rs
@ -1,254 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    context::{AsContextRef, Context, ContextRef},
    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
    values::IntValue,
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use nac3core_derive::StructFields;
 use crate::codegen::{
    types::{
        structure::{
            check_struct_type_matches_fields, FieldIndexCounter, StructField, StructFields,
        },
        ProxyType,
    },
    values::{utils::SliceValue, ArraySliceValue, ProxyValue},
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct SliceType<'ctx> {
    ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
    int_ty: IntType<'ctx>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
 }
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Copy, StructFields)]
 pub struct SliceFields<'ctx> {
    #[value_type(bool_type())]
    pub start_defined: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize)]
    pub start: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(bool_type())]
    pub stop_defined: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize)]
    pub stop: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(bool_type())]
    pub step_defined: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
    #[value_type(usize)]
    pub step: StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> SliceFields<'ctx> {
    /// Creates a new instance of [`SliceFields`] with a custom integer type for its range values.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new_sized(ctx: &impl AsContextRef<'ctx>, int_ty: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        let ctx = unsafe { ContextRef::new(ctx.as_ctx_ref()) };
        let mut counter = FieldIndexCounter::default();
        SliceFields {
            start_defined: StructField::create(&mut counter, "start_defined", ctx.bool_type()),
            start: StructField::create(&mut counter, "start", int_ty),
            stop_defined: StructField::create(&mut counter, "stop_defined", ctx.bool_type()),
            stop: StructField::create(&mut counter, "stop", int_ty),
            step_defined: StructField::create(&mut counter, "step_defined", ctx.bool_type()),
            step: StructField::create(&mut counter, "step", int_ty),
        }
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> SliceType<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `llvm_ty` represents a `slice` type, returning [Err] if it does not.
    pub fn is_representable(
        llvm_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        let ctx = llvm_ty.get_context();
        let fields = SliceFields::new(ctx, llvm_usize);
        let llvm_ty = llvm_ty.get_element_type();
        let AnyTypeEnum::StructType(llvm_ty) = llvm_ty else {
            return Err(format!("Expected struct type for `Slice` type, got {llvm_ty}"));
        };
        check_struct_type_matches_fields(
            fields,
            llvm_ty,
            "Slice",
            &[
                (fields.start.name(), &|ty| {
                    if ty.is_int_type() {
                        Ok(())
                    } else {
                        Err(format!("Expected int type for `Slice.start`, got {ty}"))
                    }
                }),
                (fields.stop.name(), &|ty| {
                    if ty.is_int_type() {
                        Ok(())
                    } else {
                        Err(format!("Expected int type for `Slice.stop`, got {ty}"))
                    }
                }),
                (fields.step.name(), &|ty| {
                    if ty.is_int_type() {
                        Ok(())
                    } else {
                        Err(format!("Expected int type for `Slice.step`, got {ty}"))
                    }
                }),
            ],
        )
    }
    // TODO: Move this into e.g. StructProxyType
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_fields(&self) -> SliceFields<'ctx> {
        SliceFields::new_sized(&self.int_ty.get_context(), self.int_ty)
    }
    /// Creates an LLVM type corresponding to the expected structure of a `Slice`.
    #[must_use]
    fn llvm_type(ctx: &'ctx Context, int_ty: IntType<'ctx>) -> PointerType<'ctx> {
        let field_tys = SliceFields::new_sized(&int_ty.get_context(), int_ty)
            .into_iter()
            .map(|field| field.1)
            .collect_vec();
        ctx.struct_type(&field_tys, false).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
    }
    /// Creates an instance of [`SliceType`] with `int_ty` as its backing integer type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new(ctx: &'ctx Context, int_ty: IntType<'ctx>, llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        let llvm_ty = Self::llvm_type(ctx, int_ty);
        Self { ty: llvm_ty, int_ty, llvm_usize }
    }
    /// Creates an instance of [`SliceType`] with `usize` as its backing integer type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new_usize<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(generator: &G, ctx: &'ctx Context) -> Self {
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx);
        Self::new(ctx, llvm_usize, llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an [`SliceType`] from a [`PointerType`] representing a `slice`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_type(
        ptr_ty: PointerType<'ctx>,
        int_ty: IntType<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr_ty, int_ty).is_ok());
        Self { ty: ptr_ty, int_ty, llvm_usize }
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn element_type(&self) -> IntType<'ctx> {
        self.int_ty
    }
    /// Allocates an instance of [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] as if by calling `alloca` on the base type.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            self.raw_alloca(generator, ctx, name),
            self.int_ty,
            self.llvm_usize,
            name,
        )
    }
    /// Converts an existing value into a [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn map_value(
        &self,
        value: <<Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value {
        <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::Value::from_pointer_value(
            value,
            self.int_ty,
            self.llvm_usize,
            name,
        )
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyType<'ctx> for SliceType<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerType<'ctx>;
    type Value = SliceValue<'ctx>;
    fn is_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: impl BasicType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        if let BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(ty) = llvm_ty.as_basic_type_enum() {
            <Self as ProxyType<'ctx>>::is_representable(generator, ctx, ty)
        } else {
            Err(format!("Expected pointer type, got {llvm_ty:?}"))
        }
    }
    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        llvm_ty: Self::Base,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        Self::is_representable(llvm_ty, generator.get_size_type(ctx))
    }
    fn raw_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> <Self::Value as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Base {
        generator
            .gen_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
        generator
            .gen_array_var_alloc(
                ctx,
                self.as_base_type().get_element_type().into_struct_type().into(),
                size,
                name,
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn as_base_type(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.ty
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<SliceType<'ctx>> for PointerType<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: SliceType<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_type()
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/array.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/array.rs
@ -1,426 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    types::AnyTypeEnum,
    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
    IntPredicate,
 };
 use crate::codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
 /// An LLVM value that is array-like, i.e. it contains a contiguous, sequenced collection of
 /// elements.
 pub trait ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> {
    /// Returns the element type of this array-like value.
    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx>;
    /// Returns the base pointer to the array.
    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx>;
    /// Returns the size of this array-like value.
    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx>;
    /// Returns a [`ArraySliceValue`] representing this value.
    fn as_slice_value<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
    ) -> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
        ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(
            self.base_ptr(ctx, generator),
            self.size(ctx, generator),
            None,
        )
    }
 }
 /// An array-like value that can be indexed by memory offset.
 pub trait ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index = IntValue<'ctx>>: ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> {
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This function should be called with a valid index.
    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx>;
    /// Returns the pointer to the data at the `idx`-th index.
    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx>;
 }
 /// An array-like value that can have its array elements accessed as a [`BasicValueEnum`].
 pub trait UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index = IntValue<'ctx>>:
    ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index>
 {
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This function should be called with a valid index.
    unsafe fn get_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
        let ptr = unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) };
        ctx.builder.build_load(ptr, name.unwrap_or_default()).unwrap()
    }
    /// Returns the data at the `idx`-th index.
    fn get<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
        let ptr = self.ptr_offset(ctx, generator, idx, name);
        ctx.builder.build_load(ptr, name.unwrap_or_default()).unwrap()
    }
 }
 /// An array-like value that can have its array elements mutated as a [`BasicValueEnum`].
 pub trait UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index = IntValue<'ctx>>:
    ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index>
 {
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This function should be called with a valid index.
    unsafe fn set_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
    ) {
        let ptr = unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, None) };
        ctx.builder.build_store(ptr, value).unwrap();
    }
    /// Sets the data at the `idx`-th index.
    fn set<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
    ) {
        let ptr = self.ptr_offset(ctx, generator, idx, None);
        ctx.builder.build_store(ptr, value).unwrap();
    }
 }
 /// An array-like value that can have its array elements accessed as an arbitrary type `T`.
 pub trait TypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, T, Index = IntValue<'ctx>>:
    UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index>
 {
    /// Casts an element from [`BasicValueEnum`] into `T`.
    fn downcast_to_type(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
    ) -> T;
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This function should be called with a valid index.
    unsafe fn get_typed_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> T {
        let value = unsafe { self.get_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) };
        self.downcast_to_type(ctx, value)
    }
    /// Returns the data at the `idx`-th index.
    fn get_typed<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> T {
        let value = self.get(ctx, generator, idx, name);
        self.downcast_to_type(ctx, value)
    }
 }
 /// An array-like value that can have its array elements mutated as an arbitrary type `T`.
 pub trait TypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, T, Index = IntValue<'ctx>>:
    UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index>
 {
    /// Casts an element from T into [`BasicValueEnum`].
    fn upcast_from_type(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        value: T,
    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx>;
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This function should be called with a valid index.
    unsafe fn set_typed_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        value: T,
    ) {
        let value = self.upcast_from_type(ctx, value);
        unsafe { self.set_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, value) }
    }
    /// Sets the data at the `idx`-th index.
    fn set_typed<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        value: T,
    ) {
        let value = self.upcast_from_type(ctx, value);
        self.set(ctx, generator, idx, value);
    }
 }
 /// Type alias for a function that casts a [`BasicValueEnum`] into a `T`.
 type ValueDowncastFn<'ctx, T> =
    Box<dyn Fn(&mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, BasicValueEnum<'ctx>) -> T + 'ctx>;
 /// Type alias for a function that casts a `T` into a [`BasicValueEnum`].
 type ValueUpcastFn<'ctx, T> = Box<dyn Fn(&mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, T) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx>>;
 /// An adapter for constraining untyped array values as typed values.
 pub struct TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted: ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> = ArraySliceValue<'ctx>> {
    adapted: Adapted,
    downcast_fn: ValueDowncastFn<'ctx, T>,
    upcast_fn: ValueUpcastFn<'ctx, T>,
 }
 impl<'ctx, T, Adapted> TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
 where
    Adapted: ArrayLikeValue<'ctx>,
 {
    /// Creates a [`TypedArrayLikeAdapter`].
    ///
    /// * `adapted` - The value to be adapted.
    /// * `downcast_fn` - The function converting a [`BasicValueEnum`] into a `T`.
    /// * `upcast_fn` - The function converting a T into a [`BasicValueEnum`].
    pub fn from(
        adapted: Adapted,
        downcast_fn: ValueDowncastFn<'ctx, T>,
        upcast_fn: ValueUpcastFn<'ctx, T>,
    ) -> Self {
        TypedArrayLikeAdapter { adapted, downcast_fn, upcast_fn }
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx, T, Adapted> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
 where
    Adapted: ArrayLikeValue<'ctx>,
 {
    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
        self.adapted.element_type(ctx, generator)
    }
    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.adapted.base_ptr(ctx, generator)
    }
    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.adapted.size(ctx, generator)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx, T, Index, Adapted> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index>
    for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
 where
    Adapted: ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index>,
 {
    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        unsafe { self.adapted.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) }
    }
    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &Index,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.adapted.ptr_offset(ctx, generator, idx, name)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx, T, Index, Adapted> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index>
    for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
 where
    Adapted: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index>,
 {
 }
 impl<'ctx, T, Index, Adapted> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index>
    for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
 where
    Adapted: UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index>,
 {
 }
 impl<'ctx, T, Index, Adapted> TypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, T, Index>
    for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
 where
    Adapted: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index>,
 {
    fn downcast_to_type(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
    ) -> T {
        (self.downcast_fn)(ctx, value)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx, T, Index, Adapted> TypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, T, Index>
    for TypedArrayLikeAdapter<'ctx, T, Adapted>
 where
    Adapted: UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index>,
 {
    fn upcast_from_type(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        value: T,
    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
        (self.upcast_fn)(ctx, value)
    }
 }
 /// An LLVM value representing an array slice, consisting of a pointer to the data and the size of
 /// the slice.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct ArraySliceValue<'ctx>(PointerValue<'ctx>, IntValue<'ctx>, Option<&'ctx str>);
 impl<'ctx> ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
    /// Creates an [`ArraySliceValue`] from a [`PointerValue`] and its size.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_ptr_val(
        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> Self {
        ArraySliceValue(ptr, size, name)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<ArraySliceValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.0
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        _: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
        self.0.get_type().get_element_type()
    }
    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        _: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.0
    }
    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        _: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.1
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx> for ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {
    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let var_name = name.map(|v| format!("{v}.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
        unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(self.base_ptr(ctx, generator), &[*idx], var_name.as_str())
                .unwrap()
        }
    }
    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        debug_assert_eq!(idx.get_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx));
        let size = self.size(ctx, generator);
        let in_range = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, *idx, size, "").unwrap();
        ctx.make_assert(
            generator,
            in_range,
            "0:IndexError",
            "list index out of range",
            [None, None, None],
            ctx.current_loc,
        );
        unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) }
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx> for ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {}
 impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx> for ArraySliceValue<'ctx> {}
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/list.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/list.rs
@ -1,241 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
 };
 use super::{
    ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ProxyValue, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor, UntypedArrayLikeMutator,
 };
 use crate::codegen::{
    types::ListType,
    {CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
 };
 /// Proxy type for accessing a `list` value in LLVM.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct ListValue<'ctx> {
    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> ListValue<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `list`, returning [Err] if `value` is not an
    /// instance.
    pub fn is_representable(
        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        ListType::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an [`ListValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_pointer_value(
        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        ListValue { value: ptr, llvm_usize, name }
    }
    /// Returns the double-indirection pointer to the `data` array, as if by calling `getelementptr`
    /// on the field.
    fn pptr_to_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
        let var_name = self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.data.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
        unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(
                    self.as_base_value(),
                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_zero()],
                    var_name.as_str(),
                )
                .unwrap()
        }
    }
    /// Returns the pointer to the field storing the size of this `list`.
    fn ptr_to_size(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
        let var_name = self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.size.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
        unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(
                    self.as_base_value(),
                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_int(1, true)],
                    var_name.as_str(),
                )
                .unwrap()
        }
    }
    /// Stores the array of data elements `data` into this instance.
    fn store_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, data: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
        ctx.builder.build_store(self.pptr_to_data(ctx), data).unwrap();
    }
    /// Convenience method for creating a new array storing data elements with the given element
    /// type `elem_ty` and `size`.
    ///
    /// If `size` is [None], the size stored in the field of this instance is used instead.
    pub fn create_data(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        elem_ty: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
        size: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>,
    ) {
        let size = size.unwrap_or_else(|| self.load_size(ctx, None));
        let data = ctx
            .builder
            .build_select(
                ctx.builder
                    .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, size, self.llvm_usize.const_zero(), "")
                    .unwrap(),
                ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(elem_ty, size, "").unwrap(),
                elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).const_zero(),
                "",
            )
            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
            .unwrap();
        self.store_data(ctx, data);
    }
    /// Returns the double-indirection pointer to the `data` array, as if by calling `getelementptr`
    /// on the field.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn data(&self) -> ListDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
        ListDataProxy(self)
    }
    /// Stores the `size` of this `list` into this instance.
    pub fn store_size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        debug_assert_eq!(size.get_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx));
        let psize = self.ptr_to_size(ctx);
        ctx.builder.build_store(psize, size).unwrap();
    }
    /// Returns the size of this `list` as a value.
    pub fn load_size(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, name: Option<&str>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        let psize = self.ptr_to_size(ctx);
        let var_name = name
            .map(ToString::to_string)
            .or_else(|| self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.size")))
            .unwrap_or_default();
        ctx.builder
            .build_load(psize, var_name.as_str())
            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
            .unwrap()
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for ListValue<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
    type Type = ListType<'ctx>;
    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
        ListType::from_type(self.as_base_value().get_type(), self.llvm_usize)
    }
    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.value
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<ListValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: ListValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_value()
    }
 }
 /// Proxy type for accessing the `data` array of an `list` instance in LLVM.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct ListDataProxy<'ctx, 'a>(&'a ListValue<'ctx>);
 impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for ListDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        _: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
        self.0.value.get_type().get_element_type()
    }
    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let var_name = self.0.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.data")).unwrap_or_default();
        ctx.builder
            .build_load(self.0.pptr_to_data(ctx), var_name.as_str())
            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.0.load_size(ctx, None)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx> for ListDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let var_name = name.map(|v| format!("{v}.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
        unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(self.base_ptr(ctx, generator), &[*idx], var_name.as_str())
                .unwrap()
        }
    }
    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        debug_assert_eq!(idx.get_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx));
        let size = self.size(ctx, generator);
        let in_range = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, *idx, size, "").unwrap();
        ctx.make_assert(
            generator,
            in_range,
            "0:IndexError",
            "list index out of range",
            [None, None, None],
            ctx.current_loc,
        );
        unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) }
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx> for ListDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
 impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx> for ListDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/mod.rs
@ -1,47 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{context::Context, values::BasicValue};
 use super::types::ProxyType;
 use crate::codegen::CodeGenerator;
 pub use array::*;
 pub use list::*;
 pub use range::*;
 mod array;
 mod list;
 pub mod ndarray;
 mod range;
 pub mod utils;
 /// A LLVM type that is used to represent a non-primitive value in NAC3.
 pub trait ProxyValue<'ctx>: Into<Self::Base> {
    /// The type of LLVM values represented by this instance. This is usually the
    /// [LLVM pointer type][PointerValue].
    type Base: BasicValue<'ctx>;
    /// The type of this value.
    type Type: ProxyType<'ctx, Value = Self>;
    /// Checks whether `value` can be represented by this [`ProxyValue`].
    fn is_instance<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        value: impl BasicValue<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        Self::Type::is_type(generator, ctx, value.as_basic_value_enum().get_type())
    }
    /// Checks whether `value` can be represented by this [`ProxyValue`].
    fn is_representable<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &'ctx Context,
        value: Self::Base,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        Self::is_instance(generator, ctx, value.as_basic_value_enum())
    }
    /// Returns the [type][ProxyType] of this value.
    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type;
    /// Returns the [base value][Self::Base] of this proxy.
    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base;
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/contiguous.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/contiguous.rs
@ -1,202 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use super::{ArrayLikeValue, NDArrayValue, ProxyValue};
 use crate::codegen::{
    stmt::gen_if_callback,
    types::{
        ndarray::{ContiguousNDArrayType, NDArrayType},
        structure::StructField,
    },
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    item: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `ContiguousNDArray`, returning [Err] if `value` is
    /// not an instance.
    pub fn is_representable(
        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        <Self as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Type::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_pointer_value(
        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        Self { value: ptr, item: dtype, llvm_usize, name }
    }
    fn ndims_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().ndims
    }
    pub fn store_ndims(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: IntValue<'ctx>) {
        self.ndims_field().set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), value, self.name);
    }
    fn shape_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().shape
    }
    pub fn store_shape(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
        self.shape_field().set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), value, self.name);
    }
    pub fn load_shape(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.shape_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    fn data_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().data
    }
    pub fn store_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
        self.data_field().set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), value, self.name);
    }
    pub fn load_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.data_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
    type Type = ContiguousNDArrayType<'ctx>;
    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
        <Self as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Type::from_type(
            self.as_base_value().get_type(),
            self.item,
            self.llvm_usize,
        )
    }
    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.value
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_value()
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    /// Create a [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] from the contents of this ndarray.
    ///
    /// This function may or may not be expensive depending on if this ndarray has contiguous data.
    ///
    /// If this ndarray is not C-contiguous, this function will allocate memory on the stack for the
    /// `data` field of the returned [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] and copy contents of this ndarray to
    /// there.
    ///
    /// If this ndarray is C-contiguous, contents of this ndarray will not be copied. The created
    /// [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`] will share memory with this ndarray.
    pub fn make_contiguous_ndarray<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) -> ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx> {
        let result = ContiguousNDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, self.dtype)
            .alloca(generator, ctx, self.name);
        // Set ndims and shape.
        let ndims = self
            .ndims
            .map_or_else(|| self.load_ndims(ctx), |ndims| self.llvm_usize.const_int(ndims, false));
        result.store_ndims(ctx, ndims);
        let shape = self.shape();
        result.store_shape(ctx, shape.base_ptr(ctx, generator));
        gen_if_callback(
            generator,
            ctx,
            |generator, ctx| Ok(self.is_c_contiguous(generator, ctx)),
            |_, ctx| {
                // This ndarray is contiguous.
                let data = self.data_field(ctx).get(ctx, self.as_base_value(), self.name);
                let data = ctx
                    .builder
                    .build_pointer_cast(data, result.item.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
                    .unwrap();
                result.store_data(ctx, data);
                Ok(())
            },
            |generator, ctx| {
                // This ndarray is not contiguous. Do a full-copy on `data`. `make_copy` produces an
                // ndarray with contiguous `data`.
                let copied_ndarray = self.make_copy(generator, ctx);
                let data = copied_ndarray.data().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
                let data = ctx
                    .builder
                    .build_pointer_cast(data, result.item.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
                    .unwrap();
                result.store_data(ctx, data);
                Ok(())
            },
        )
        .unwrap();
        result
    }
    /// Create an [`NDArrayValue`] from a [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`].
    ///
    /// The operation is cheap. The newly created [`NDArrayValue`] will share the same memory as the
    /// [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`].
    ///
    /// `ndims` has to be provided as [`NDArrayValue`] requires a statically known `ndims` value,
    /// despite the fact that the information should be contained within the
    /// [`ContiguousNDArrayValue`].
    pub fn from_contiguous_ndarray<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        carray: ContiguousNDArrayValue<'ctx>,
        ndims: u64,
    ) -> Self {
        // TODO: Debug assert `ndims == carray.ndims` to catch bugs.
        // Allocate the resulting ndarray.
        let ndarray = NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, carray.item, Some(ndims))
            .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, carray.name);
        // Copy shape and update strides
        let shape = carray.load_shape(ctx);
        ndarray.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, shape);
        ndarray.set_strides_contiguous(generator, ctx);
        // Share data
        let data = carray.load_data(ctx);
        ndarray.store_data(
            ctx,
            ctx.builder
                .build_pointer_cast(data, ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
                .unwrap(),
        );
        ndarray
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/indexing.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/indexing.rs
@ -1,262 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    types::IntType,
    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use nac3parser::ast::{Expr, ExprKind};
 use crate::{
    codegen::{
        irrt,
        types::{
            ndarray::{NDArrayType, NDIndexType},
            structure::StructField,
            utils::SliceType,
        },
        values::{ndarray::NDArrayValue, utils::RustSlice, ProxyValue},
        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
    },
    typecheck::typedef::Type,
 };
 /// An IRRT representation of an ndarray subscript index.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct NDIndexValue<'ctx> {
    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> NDIndexValue<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `ndindex`, returning [Err] if `value` is not an
    /// instance.
    pub fn is_representable(
        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        <Self as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Type::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an [`NDIndexValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_pointer_value(
        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        Self { value: ptr, llvm_usize, name }
    }
    fn type_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().type_
    }
    pub fn load_type(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.type_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    pub fn store_type(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: IntValue<'ctx>) {
        self.type_field().set(ctx, self.value, value, self.name);
    }
    fn data_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().data
    }
    pub fn load_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.data_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    pub fn store_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
        self.data_field().set(ctx, self.value, value, self.name);
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for NDIndexValue<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
    type Type = NDIndexType<'ctx>;
    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
        Self::Type::from_type(self.value.get_type(), self.llvm_usize)
    }
    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.value
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<NDIndexValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: NDIndexValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_value()
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    /// Get the expected `ndims` after indexing with `indices`.
    #[must_use]
    fn deduce_ndims_after_indexing_with(&self, indices: &[RustNDIndex<'ctx>]) -> Option<u64> {
        let mut ndims = self.ndims?;
        for index in indices {
            match index {
                RustNDIndex::SingleElement(_) => {
                    ndims -= 1; // Single elements decrements ndims
                }
                RustNDIndex::NewAxis => {
                    ndims += 1; // `np.newaxis` / `none` adds a new axis
                }
                RustNDIndex::Ellipsis | RustNDIndex::Slice(_) => {}
            }
        }
        Some(ndims)
    }
    /// Index into the ndarray, and return a newly-allocated view on this ndarray.
    ///
    /// This function behaves like NumPy's ndarray indexing, but if the indices index
    /// into a single element, an unsized ndarray is returned.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn index<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        indices: &[RustNDIndex<'ctx>],
    ) -> Self {
        assert!(self.ndims.is_some(), "NDArrayValue::index is only supported for instances with compile-time known ndims (self.ndims = Some(...))");
        let dst_ndims = self.deduce_ndims_after_indexing_with(indices);
        let dst_ndarray = NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, self.dtype, dst_ndims)
            .construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, None);
        let indices =
            NDIndexType::new(generator, ctx.ctx).construct_ndindices(generator, ctx, indices);
        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_index(generator, ctx, indices, *self, dst_ndarray);
        dst_ndarray
    }
 }
 /// A convenience enum representing a [`NDIndexValue`].
 // TODO: Rename to CTConstNDIndex
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub enum RustNDIndex<'ctx> {
    SingleElement(IntValue<'ctx>),
    Slice(RustSlice<'ctx>),
    NewAxis,
    Ellipsis,
 }
 impl<'ctx> RustNDIndex<'ctx> {
    /// Generate LLVM code to transform an ndarray subscript expression to
    /// its list of [`RustNDIndex`]
    ///
    /// i.e.,
    /// ```python
    /// my_ndarray[::3, 1, :2:]
    ///            ^^^^^^^^^^^ Then these into a three `RustNDIndex`es
    /// ```
    pub fn from_subscript_expr<G: CodeGenerator>(
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        subscript: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
    ) -> Result<Vec<RustNDIndex<'ctx>>, String> {
        // Annoying notes about `slice`
        //  - `my_array[5]`
        //    - slice is a `Constant`
        //  - `my_array[:5]`
        //    - slice is a `Slice`
        //  - `my_array[:]`
        //    - slice is a `Slice`, but lower upper step would all be `Option::None`
        //  - `my_array[:, :]`
        //    - slice is now a `Tuple` of two `Slice`-s
        //
        // In summary:
        //  - when there is a comma "," within [], `slice` will be a `Tuple` of the entries.
        //  - when there is not comma "," within [] (i.e., just a single entry), `slice` will be that entry itself.
        //
        // So we first "flatten" out the slice expression
        let index_exprs = match &subscript.node {
            ExprKind::Tuple { elts, .. } => elts.iter().collect_vec(),
            _ => vec![subscript],
        };
        // Process all index expressions
        let mut rust_ndindices: Vec<RustNDIndex> = Vec::with_capacity(index_exprs.len()); // Not using iterators here because `?` is used here.
        for index_expr in index_exprs {
            // NOTE: Currently nac3core's slices do not have an object representation,
            // so the code/implementation looks awkward - we have to do pattern matching on the expression
            let ndindex = if let ExprKind::Slice { lower, upper, step } = &index_expr.node {
                // Handle slices
                let slice = RustSlice::from_slice_expr(generator, ctx, lower, upper, step)?;
                RustNDIndex::Slice(slice)
            } else {
                // Treat and handle everything else as a single element index.
                let index = generator.gen_expr(ctx, index_expr)?.unwrap().to_basic_value_enum(
                    ctx,
                    generator,
                    ctx.primitives.int32, // Must be int32, this checks for illegal values
                )?;
                let index = index.into_int_value();
                RustNDIndex::SingleElement(index)
            };
            rust_ndindices.push(ndindex);
        }
        Ok(rust_ndindices)
    }
    /// Get the value to set `NDIndex::type` for this variant.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_type_id(&self) -> u64 {
        // Defined in IRRT, must be in sync
        match self {
            RustNDIndex::SingleElement(_) => 0,
            RustNDIndex::Slice(_) => 1,
            RustNDIndex::NewAxis => 2,
            RustNDIndex::Ellipsis => 3,
        }
    }
    /// Serialize this [`RustNDIndex`] by writing it into an LLVM [`NDIndexValue`].
    pub fn write_to_ndindex<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        dst_ndindex: NDIndexValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        let llvm_pi8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default());
        // Set `dst_ndindex.type`
        dst_ndindex.store_type(ctx, ctx.ctx.i8_type().const_int(self.get_type_id(), false));
        // Set `dst_ndindex_ptr->data`
        match self {
            RustNDIndex::SingleElement(in_index) => {
                let index_ptr = ctx.builder.build_alloca(ctx.ctx.i32_type(), "").unwrap();
                ctx.builder.build_store(index_ptr, *in_index).unwrap();
                dst_ndindex.store_data(
                    ctx,
                    ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(index_ptr, llvm_pi8, "").unwrap(),
                );
            }
            RustNDIndex::Slice(in_rust_slice) => {
                let user_slice_ptr =
                    SliceType::new(ctx.ctx, ctx.ctx.i32_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx))
                        .alloca(generator, ctx, None);
                in_rust_slice.write_to_slice(ctx, user_slice_ptr);
                dst_ndindex.store_data(
                    ctx,
                    ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(user_slice_ptr.into(), llvm_pi8, "").unwrap(),
                );
            }
            RustNDIndex::NewAxis | RustNDIndex::Ellipsis => {}
        }
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/mod.rs
@ -1,933 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    types::{AnyType, AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
 };
 use super::{
    ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ProxyValue, TypedArrayLikeAccessor, TypedArrayLikeMutator,
    UntypedArrayLikeAccessor, UntypedArrayLikeMutator,
 };
 use crate::codegen::{
    irrt,
    llvm_intrinsics::{call_int_umin, call_memcpy_generic_array},
    stmt::gen_for_callback_incrementing,
    type_aligned_alloca,
    types::{ndarray::NDArrayType, structure::StructField},
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 pub use contiguous::*;
 pub use indexing::*;
 pub use nditer::*;
 pub use view::*;
 mod contiguous;
 mod indexing;
 mod nditer;
 mod view;
 /// Proxy type for accessing an `NDArray` value in LLVM.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
    ndims: Option<u64>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `NDArray`, returning [Err] if `value` is not an
    /// instance.
    pub fn is_representable(
        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        NDArrayType::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an [`NDArrayValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_pointer_value(
        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        dtype: BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>,
        ndims: Option<u64>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        NDArrayValue { value: ptr, dtype, ndims, llvm_usize, name }
    }
    fn ndims_field(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).ndims
    }
    /// Returns the pointer to the field storing the number of dimensions of this `NDArray`.
    fn ptr_to_ndims(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.ndims_field(ctx).ptr_by_gep(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    /// Stores the number of dimensions `ndims` into this instance.
    pub fn store_ndims<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
        ndims: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        debug_assert_eq!(ndims.get_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx));
        let pndims = self.ptr_to_ndims(ctx);
        ctx.builder.build_store(pndims, ndims).unwrap();
    }
    /// Returns the number of dimensions of this `NDArray` as a value.
    pub fn load_ndims(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        let pndims = self.ptr_to_ndims(ctx);
        ctx.builder.build_load(pndims, "").map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value).unwrap()
    }
    fn itemsize_field(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).itemsize
    }
    /// Stores the size of each element `itemsize` into this instance.
    pub fn store_itemsize<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
        itemsize: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        debug_assert_eq!(itemsize.get_type(), generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx));
        self.itemsize_field(ctx).set(ctx, self.value, itemsize, self.name);
    }
    /// Returns the size of each element of this `NDArray` as a value.
    pub fn load_itemsize(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.itemsize_field(ctx).get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    fn shape_field(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).shape
    }
    /// Returns the double-indirection pointer to the `shape` array, as if by calling
    /// `getelementptr` on the field.
    fn ptr_to_shape(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.shape_field(ctx).ptr_by_gep(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    /// Stores the array of dimension sizes `dims` into this instance.
    fn store_shape(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, dims: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
        self.shape_field(ctx).set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), dims, self.name);
    }
    /// Convenience method for creating a new array storing dimension sizes with the given `size`.
    pub fn create_shape(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        self.store_shape(ctx, ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_usize, size, "").unwrap());
    }
    /// Returns a proxy object to the field storing the size of each dimension of this `NDArray`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn shape(&self) -> NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {
        NDArrayShapeProxy(self)
    }
    fn strides_field(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).strides
    }
    /// Returns the double-indirection pointer to the `strides` array, as if by calling
    /// `getelementptr` on the field.
    fn ptr_to_strides(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.strides_field(ctx).ptr_by_gep(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    /// Stores the array of stride sizes `strides` into this instance.
    fn store_strides(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, strides: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
        self.strides_field(ctx).set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), strides, self.name);
    }
    /// Convenience method for creating a new array storing the stride with the given `size`.
    pub fn create_strides(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
        size: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        self.store_strides(ctx, ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_usize, size, "").unwrap());
    }
    /// Returns a proxy object to the field storing the stride of each dimension of this `NDArray`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn strides(&self) -> NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {
        NDArrayStridesProxy(self)
    }
    fn data_field(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).data
    }
    /// Returns the double-indirection pointer to the `data` array, as if by calling `getelementptr`
    /// on the field.
    pub fn ptr_to_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.data_field(ctx).ptr_by_gep(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    /// Stores the array of data elements `data` into this instance.
    fn store_data(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, data: PointerValue<'ctx>) {
        let data = ctx
            .builder
            .build_bit_cast(data, ctx.ctx.i8_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
            .unwrap();
        self.data_field(ctx).set(ctx, self.as_base_value(), data.into_pointer_value(), self.name);
    }
    /// Convenience method for creating a new array storing data elements with the given element
    /// type `elem_ty` and `size`.
    ///
    /// The data buffer will be allocated on the stack, and is considered to be owned by this ndarray instance.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// The caller must ensure that `shape` and `itemsize` of this ndarray instance is initialized.
    pub unsafe fn create_data<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) {
        let nbytes = self.nbytes(generator, ctx);
        let data = type_aligned_alloca(generator, ctx, self.dtype, nbytes, None);
        self.store_data(ctx, data);
        self.set_strides_contiguous(generator, ctx);
    }
    /// Returns a proxy object to the field storing the data of this `NDArray`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn data(&self) -> NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
        NDArrayDataProxy(self)
    }
    /// Copy shape dimensions from an array.
    pub fn copy_shape_from_array<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        shape: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        let num_items = self.load_ndims(ctx);
        call_memcpy_generic_array(
            ctx,
            self.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator),
            shape,
            num_items,
            ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(),
        );
    }
    /// Copy shape dimensions from an ndarray.
    /// Panics if `ndims` mismatches.
    pub fn copy_shape_from_ndarray<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        src_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        if self.ndims.is_some() && src_ndarray.ndims.is_some() {
            assert_eq!(self.ndims, src_ndarray.ndims);
        } else {
            let self_ndims = self.load_ndims(ctx);
            let src_ndims = src_ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
            ctx.make_assert(
                generator,
                ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
                    IntPredicate::EQ,
                    self_ndims,
                    src_ndims,
                    ""
                ).unwrap(),
                "0:AssertionError",
                "NDArrayValue::copy_shape_from_ndarray: Expected self.ndims ({0}) == src_ndarray.ndims ({1})",
                [Some(self_ndims), Some(src_ndims), None],
                ctx.current_loc
            );
        }
        let src_shape = src_ndarray.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
        self.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, src_shape);
    }
    /// Copy strides dimensions from an array.
    pub fn copy_strides_from_array<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        strides: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        let num_items = self.load_ndims(ctx);
        call_memcpy_generic_array(
            ctx,
            self.strides().base_ptr(ctx, generator),
            strides,
            num_items,
            ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(),
        );
    }
    /// Copy strides dimensions from an ndarray.
    /// Panics if `ndims` mismatches.
    pub fn copy_strides_from_ndarray<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        src_ndarray: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        if self.ndims.is_some() && src_ndarray.ndims.is_some() {
            assert_eq!(self.ndims, src_ndarray.ndims);
        } else {
            let self_ndims = self.load_ndims(ctx);
            let src_ndims = src_ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
            ctx.make_assert(
                generator,
                ctx.builder.build_int_compare(
                    IntPredicate::EQ,
                    self_ndims,
                    src_ndims,
                    ""
                ).unwrap(),
                "0:AssertionError",
                "NDArrayValue::copy_shape_from_ndarray: Expected self.ndims ({0}) == src_ndarray.ndims ({1})",
                [Some(self_ndims), Some(src_ndims), None],
                ctx.current_loc
            );
        }
        let src_strides = src_ndarray.strides().base_ptr(ctx, generator);
        self.copy_strides_from_array(generator, ctx, src_strides);
    }
    /// Get the `np.size()` of this ndarray.
    pub fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_size(generator, ctx, *self)
    }
    /// Get the `ndarray.nbytes` of this ndarray.
    pub fn nbytes<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_nbytes(generator, ctx, *self)
    }
    /// Get the `len()` of this ndarray.
    pub fn len<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_len(generator, ctx, *self)
    }
    /// Check if this ndarray is C-contiguous.
    ///
    /// See NumPy's `flags["C_CONTIGUOUS"]`: <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.flags.html#numpy.ndarray.flags>
    pub fn is_c_contiguous<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous(generator, ctx, *self)
    }
    /// Call [`call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape`] on this ndarray to update `strides`.
    ///
    /// Update the ndarray's strides to make the ndarray contiguous.
    pub fn set_strides_contiguous<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) {
        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape(generator, ctx, *self);
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn make_copy<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) -> Self {
        let clone = if self.ndims.is_some() {
            self.get_type().construct_uninitialized(generator, ctx, None)
        } else {
            self.get_type().construct_dyn_ndims(generator, ctx, self.load_ndims(ctx), None)
        };
        let shape = self.shape();
        clone.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, shape.base_ptr(ctx, generator));
        unsafe { clone.create_data(generator, ctx) };
        clone.copy_data_from(generator, ctx, *self);
        clone
    }
    /// Copy data from another ndarray.
    ///
    /// This ndarray and `src` is that their `np.size()` should be the same. Their shapes
    /// do not matter. The copying order is determined by how their flattened views look.
    ///
    /// Panics if the `dtype`s of ndarrays are different.
    pub fn copy_data_from<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        src: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    ) {
        assert_eq!(self.dtype, src.dtype, "self and src dtype should match");
        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_ndarray_copy_data(generator, ctx, src, *self);
    }
    /// Returns true if this ndarray is unsized - `ndims == 0` and only contains a scalar.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn is_unsized(&self) -> Option<bool> {
        self.ndims.map(|ndims| ndims == 0)
    }
    /// If this ndarray is unsized, return its sole value as an [`AnyObject`].
    /// Otherwise, do nothing and return the ndarray itself.
    // TODO: Rename to get_unsized_element
    pub fn split_unsized<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) -> ScalarOrNDArray<'ctx> {
        let Some(is_unsized) = self.is_unsized() else { todo!() };
        if is_unsized {
            // NOTE: `np.size(self) == 0` here is never possible.
            let zero = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx).const_zero();
            let value = unsafe { self.data().get_unchecked(ctx, generator, &zero, None) };
            ScalarOrNDArray::Scalar(value)
        } else {
            ScalarOrNDArray::NDArray(*self)
        }
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
    type Type = NDArrayType<'ctx>;
    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
        NDArrayType::from_type(
            self.as_base_value().get_type(),
            self.dtype,
            self.ndims,
            self.llvm_usize,
        )
    }
    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.value
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<NDArrayValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: NDArrayValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_value()
    }
 }
 /// Proxy type for accessing the `shape` array of an `NDArray` instance in LLVM.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, 'a>(&'a NDArrayValue<'ctx>);
 impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
        self.0.shape().base_ptr(ctx, generator).get_type().get_element_type()
    }
    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.0.shape_field(ctx).get(ctx, self.0.as_base_value(), self.0.name)
    }
    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.0.load_ndims(ctx)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let var_name = name.map(|v| format!("{v}.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
        unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(self.base_ptr(ctx, generator), &[*idx], var_name.as_str())
                .unwrap()
        }
    }
    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let size = self.size(ctx, generator);
        let in_range = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, *idx, size, "").unwrap();
        ctx.make_assert(
            generator,
            in_range,
            "0:IndexError",
            "index {0} is out of bounds for axis 0 with size {1}",
            [Some(*idx), Some(self.0.load_ndims(ctx)), None],
            ctx.current_loc,
        );
        unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) }
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
 impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
 impl<'ctx> TypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    fn downcast_to_type(
        &self,
        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        value.into_int_value()
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> TypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayShapeProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    fn upcast_from_type(
        &self,
        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
        value.into()
    }
 }
 /// Proxy type for accessing the `strides` array of an `NDArray` instance in LLVM.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, 'a>(&'a NDArrayValue<'ctx>);
 impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
        self.0.strides().base_ptr(ctx, generator).get_type().get_element_type()
    }
    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.0.strides_field(ctx).get(ctx, self.0.as_base_value(), self.0.name)
    }
    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.0.load_ndims(ctx)
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let var_name = name.map(|v| format!("{v}.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
        unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(self.base_ptr(ctx, generator), &[*idx], var_name.as_str())
                .unwrap()
        }
    }
    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let size = self.size(ctx, generator);
        let in_range = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, *idx, size, "").unwrap();
        ctx.make_assert(
            generator,
            in_range,
            "0:IndexError",
            "index {0} is out of bounds for axis 0 with size {1}",
            [Some(*idx), Some(self.0.load_ndims(ctx)), None],
            ctx.current_loc,
        );
        unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) }
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
 impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
 impl<'ctx> TypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    fn downcast_to_type(
        &self,
        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        value.into_int_value()
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> TypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayStridesProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    fn upcast_from_type(
        &self,
        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
    ) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
        value.into()
    }
 }
 /// Proxy type for accessing the `data` array of an `NDArray` instance in LLVM.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, 'a>(&'a NDArrayValue<'ctx>);
 impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeValue<'ctx> for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    fn element_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        _: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
        self.0.dtype.as_any_type_enum()
    }
    fn base_ptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &G,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        self.0.data_field(ctx).get(ctx, self.0.as_base_value(), self.0.name)
    }
    fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &G,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        irrt::ndarray::call_ndarray_calc_size(
            generator,
            ctx,
            &self.as_slice_value(ctx, generator),
            (None, None),
        )
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx> for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {
    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let sizeof_elem = ctx
            .builder
            .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(
                self.element_type(ctx, generator).size_of().unwrap(),
                idx.get_type(),
                "",
            )
            .unwrap();
        let idx = ctx.builder.build_int_mul(*idx, sizeof_elem, "").unwrap();
        let ptr = unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(
                    self.base_ptr(ctx, generator),
                    &[idx],
                    name.unwrap_or_default(),
                )
                .unwrap()
        };
        // Current implementation is transparent - The returned pointer type is
        // already cast into the expected type, allowing for immediately
        // load/store.
        ctx.builder
            .build_pointer_cast(
                ptr,
                BasicTypeEnum::try_from(self.element_type(ctx, generator))
                    .unwrap()
                    .ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
                "",
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        idx: &IntValue<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let data_sz = self.size(ctx, generator);
        let in_range = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, *idx, data_sz, "").unwrap();
        ctx.make_assert(
            generator,
            in_range,
            "0:IndexError",
            "index {0} is out of bounds with size {1}",
            [Some(*idx), Some(self.0.load_ndims(ctx)), None],
            ctx.current_loc,
        );
        let ptr = unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, idx, name) };
        // Current implementation is transparent - The returned pointer type is
        // already cast into the expected type, allowing for immediately
        // load/store.
        ctx.builder
            .build_pointer_cast(
                ptr,
                BasicTypeEnum::try_from(self.element_type(ctx, generator))
                    .unwrap()
                    .ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
                "",
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
 impl<'ctx> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_> {}
 impl<'ctx, Index: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx>> ArrayLikeIndexer<'ctx, Index>
    for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_>
 {
    unsafe fn ptr_offset_unchecked<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        indices: &Index,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
        let indices_elem_ty = indices
            .ptr_offset(ctx, generator, &llvm_usize.const_zero(), None)
            .get_type()
            .get_element_type();
        let Ok(indices_elem_ty) = IntType::try_from(indices_elem_ty) else {
            panic!("Expected list[int32] but got {indices_elem_ty}")
        };
        assert_eq!(
            indices_elem_ty.get_bit_width(),
            32,
            "Expected list[int32] but got list[int{}]",
            indices_elem_ty.get_bit_width()
        );
        let index = irrt::ndarray::call_ndarray_flatten_index(generator, ctx, *self.0, indices);
        let sizeof_elem = ctx
            .builder
            .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(
                self.element_type(ctx, generator).size_of().unwrap(),
                index.get_type(),
                "",
            )
            .unwrap();
        let index = ctx.builder.build_int_mul(index, sizeof_elem, "").unwrap();
        let ptr = unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(
                    self.base_ptr(ctx, generator),
                    &[index],
                    name.unwrap_or_default(),
                )
                .unwrap()
        };
        // TODO: Current implementation is transparent
        ctx.builder
            .build_pointer_cast(
                ptr,
                BasicTypeEnum::try_from(self.element_type(ctx, generator))
                    .unwrap()
                    .ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
                "",
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
    fn ptr_offset<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut G,
        indices: &Index,
        name: Option<&str>,
    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
        let indices_size = indices.size(ctx, generator);
        let nidx_leq_ndims = ctx
            .builder
            .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLE, indices_size, self.0.load_ndims(ctx), "")
            .unwrap();
        ctx.make_assert(
            generator,
            nidx_leq_ndims,
            "0:IndexError",
            "invalid index to scalar variable",
            [None, None, None],
            ctx.current_loc,
        );
        let indices_len = indices.size(ctx, generator);
        let ndarray_len = self.0.load_ndims(ctx);
        let len = call_int_umin(ctx, indices_len, ndarray_len, None);
        gen_for_callback_incrementing(
            generator,
            ctx,
            None,
            llvm_usize.const_zero(),
            (len, false),
            |generator, ctx, _, i| {
                let (dim_idx, dim_sz) = unsafe {
                    (
                        indices.get_unchecked(ctx, generator, &i, None).into_int_value(),
                        self.0.shape().get_typed_unchecked(ctx, generator, &i, None),
                    )
                };
                let dim_idx = ctx
                    .builder
                    .build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(dim_idx, dim_sz.get_type(), "")
                    .unwrap();
                let dim_lt =
                    ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SLT, dim_idx, dim_sz, "").unwrap();
                ctx.make_assert(
                    generator,
                    dim_lt,
                    "0:IndexError",
                    "index {0} is out of bounds for axis 0 with size {1}",
                    [Some(dim_idx), Some(dim_sz), None],
                    ctx.current_loc,
                );
                Ok(())
            },
            llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
        )
        .unwrap();
        let ptr = unsafe { self.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, indices, name) };
        // TODO: Current implementation is transparent
        ctx.builder
            .build_pointer_cast(
                ptr,
                BasicTypeEnum::try_from(self.element_type(ctx, generator))
                    .unwrap()
                    .ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()),
                "",
            )
            .unwrap()
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx, Index: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx>> UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, Index>
    for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_>
 {
 }
 impl<'ctx, Index: UntypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx>> UntypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, Index>
    for NDArrayDataProxy<'ctx, '_>
 {
 }
 /// A version of [`call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape`] in Rust.
 ///
 /// This function is used generating strides for globally defined contiguous ndarrays.
 #[must_use]
 pub fn make_contiguous_strides(itemsize: u64, ndims: u64, shape: &[u64]) -> Vec<u64> {
    let mut strides = Vec::with_capacity(ndims as usize);
    let mut stride_product = 1u64;
    for i in 0..ndims {
        let axis = ndims - i - 1;
        strides[axis as usize] = stride_product * itemsize;
        stride_product *= shape[axis as usize];
    }
    strides
 }
 /// A convenience enum for implementing functions that acts on scalars or ndarrays or both.
 #[derive(Clone, Copy)]
 pub enum ScalarOrNDArray<'ctx> {
    Scalar(BasicValueEnum<'ctx>),
    NDArray(NDArrayValue<'ctx>),
 }
 impl<'ctx> ScalarOrNDArray<'ctx> {
    /// Get the underlying [`BasicValueEnum<'ctx>`] of this [`ScalarOrNDArray`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn to_basic_value_enum(self) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
        match self {
            ScalarOrNDArray::Scalar(scalar) => scalar,
            ScalarOrNDArray::NDArray(ndarray) => ndarray.as_base_value().into(),
        }
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/nditer.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/nditer.rs
@ -1,176 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    types::{BasicType, IntType},
    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
    AddressSpace,
 };
 use super::{NDArrayValue, ProxyValue, TypedArrayLikeAccessor, TypedArrayLikeMutator};
 use crate::codegen::{
    irrt,
    stmt::{gen_for_callback, BreakContinueHooks},
    types::{ndarray::NDIterType, structure::StructField},
    values::{ArraySliceValue, TypedArrayLikeAdapter},
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct NDIterValue<'ctx> {
    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    parent: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
    indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> NDIterValue<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `NDArray`, returning [Err] if `value` is not an
    /// instance.
    pub fn is_representable(
        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        <Self as ProxyValue>::Type::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an [`NDArrayValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_pointer_value(
        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        parent: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
        indices: ArraySliceValue<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        Self { value: ptr, parent, indices, llvm_usize, name }
    }
    /// Is the current iteration valid?
    ///
    /// If true, then `element`, `indices` and `nth` contain details about the current element.
    ///
    /// If `ndarray` is unsized, this returns true only for the first iteration.
    /// If `ndarray` is 0-sized, this always returns false.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn has_element<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &G,
        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_nditer_has_element(generator, ctx, *self)
    }
    /// Go to the next element. If `has_element()` is false, then this has undefined behavior.
    ///
    /// If `ndarray` is unsized, this can only be called once.
    /// If `ndarray` is 0-sized, this can never be called.
    pub fn next<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(&self, generator: &G, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) {
        irrt::ndarray::call_nac3_nditer_next(generator, ctx, *self);
    }
    fn element(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, PointerValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).element
    }
    /// Get pointer to the current element.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_pointer(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let elem_ty = self.parent.dtype;
        let p = self.element(ctx).get(ctx, self.as_base_value(), None);
        ctx.builder
            .build_pointer_cast(p, elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "element")
            .unwrap()
    }
    /// Get the value of the current element.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_scalar(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
        let p = self.get_pointer(ctx);
        ctx.builder.build_load(p, "value").unwrap()
    }
    fn nth(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields(ctx.ctx).nth
    }
    /// Get the index of the current element if this ndarray were a flat ndarray.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_index(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.nth(ctx).get(ctx, self.as_base_value(), None)
    }
    /// Get the indices of the current element.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn get_indices(
        &'ctx self,
    ) -> impl TypedArrayLikeAccessor<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> + TypedArrayLikeMutator<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>>
    {
        TypedArrayLikeAdapter::from(
            self.indices,
            Box::new(|ctx, val| {
                ctx.builder
                    .build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(val.into_int_value(), self.llvm_usize, "")
                    .unwrap()
            }),
            Box::new(|_, val| val.into()),
        )
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for NDIterValue<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
    type Type = NDIterType<'ctx>;
    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
        NDIterType::from_type(self.as_base_value().get_type(), self.llvm_usize)
    }
    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.value
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<NDIterValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: NDIterValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_value()
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    /// Iterate through every element in the ndarray.
    ///
    /// `body` has access to [`BreakContinueHooks`] to short-circuit and [`NDIterValue`] to
    /// get properties of the current iteration (e.g., the current element, indices, etc.)
    pub fn foreach<'a, G, F>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
        body: F,
    ) -> Result<(), String>
    where
        G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
        F: FnOnce(
            &mut G,
            &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
            BreakContinueHooks<'ctx>,
            NDIterValue<'ctx>,
        ) -> Result<(), String>,
    {
        gen_for_callback(
            generator,
            ctx,
            Some("ndarray_foreach"),
            |generator, ctx| {
                Ok(NDIterType::new(generator, ctx.ctx).construct(generator, ctx, *self))
            },
            |generator, ctx, nditer| Ok(nditer.has_element(generator, ctx)),
            |generator, ctx, hooks, nditer| body(generator, ctx, hooks, nditer),
            |generator, ctx, nditer| {
                nditer.next(generator, ctx);
                Ok(())
            },
        )
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/view.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/ndarray/view.rs
@ -1,36 +0,0 @@
 use std::iter::{once, repeat_n};
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use crate::codegen::{
    values::ndarray::{NDArrayValue, RustNDIndex},
    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
 impl<'ctx> NDArrayValue<'ctx> {
    /// Make sure the ndarray is at least `ndmin`-dimensional.
    ///
    /// If this ndarray's `ndims` is less than `ndmin`, a view is created on this with 1s prepended
    /// to the shape. Otherwise, this function does nothing and return this ndarray.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn atleast_nd<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
        &self,
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        ndmin: u64,
    ) -> Self {
        assert!(self.ndims.is_some(), "NDArrayValue::atleast_nd is only supported for instances with compile-time known ndims (self.ndims = Some(...))");
        let ndims = self.ndims.unwrap();
        if ndims < ndmin {
            // Extend the dimensions with np.newaxis.
            let indices = repeat_n(RustNDIndex::NewAxis, (ndmin - ndims) as usize)
                .chain(once(RustNDIndex::Ellipsis))
                .collect_vec();
            self.index(generator, ctx, &indices)
        } else {
            *self
        }
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/range.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/range.rs
@ -1,153 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue};
 use super::ProxyValue;
 use crate::codegen::{types::RangeType, CodeGenContext};
 /// Proxy type for accessing a `range` value in LLVM.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct RangeValue<'ctx> {
    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> RangeValue<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `range`, returning [Err] if `value` is not an instance.
    pub fn is_representable(value: PointerValue<'ctx>) -> Result<(), String> {
        RangeType::is_representable(value.get_type())
    }
    /// Creates an [`RangeValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_pointer_value(ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>, name: Option<&'ctx str>) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr).is_ok());
        RangeValue { value: ptr, name }
    }
    fn ptr_to_start(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
        let var_name = self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.start.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
        unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(
                    self.as_base_value(),
                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_int(0, false)],
                    var_name.as_str(),
                )
                .unwrap()
        }
    }
    fn ptr_to_end(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
        let var_name = self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.end.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
        unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(
                    self.as_base_value(),
                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_int(1, false)],
                    var_name.as_str(),
                )
                .unwrap()
        }
    }
    fn ptr_to_step(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
        let var_name = self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.step.addr")).unwrap_or_default();
        unsafe {
            ctx.builder
                .build_in_bounds_gep(
                    self.as_base_value(),
                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_int(2, false)],
                    var_name.as_str(),
                )
                .unwrap()
        }
    }
    /// Stores the `start` value into this instance.
    pub fn store_start(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, start: IntValue<'ctx>) {
        debug_assert_eq!(start.get_type().get_bit_width(), 32);
        let pstart = self.ptr_to_start(ctx);
        ctx.builder.build_store(pstart, start).unwrap();
    }
    /// Returns the `start` value of this `range`.
    pub fn load_start(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, name: Option<&str>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        let pstart = self.ptr_to_start(ctx);
        let var_name = name
            .map(ToString::to_string)
            .or_else(|| self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.start")))
            .unwrap_or_default();
        ctx.builder
            .build_load(pstart, var_name.as_str())
            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
            .unwrap()
    }
    /// Stores the `end` value into this instance.
    pub fn store_end(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, end: IntValue<'ctx>) {
        debug_assert_eq!(end.get_type().get_bit_width(), 32);
        let pend = self.ptr_to_end(ctx);
        ctx.builder.build_store(pend, end).unwrap();
    }
    /// Returns the `end` value of this `range`.
    pub fn load_end(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, name: Option<&str>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        let pend = self.ptr_to_end(ctx);
        let var_name = name
            .map(ToString::to_string)
            .or_else(|| self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.end")))
            .unwrap_or_default();
        ctx.builder.build_load(pend, var_name.as_str()).map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value).unwrap()
    }
    /// Stores the `step` value into this instance.
    pub fn store_step(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, step: IntValue<'ctx>) {
        debug_assert_eq!(step.get_type().get_bit_width(), 32);
        let pstep = self.ptr_to_step(ctx);
        ctx.builder.build_store(pstep, step).unwrap();
    }
    /// Returns the `step` value of this `range`.
    pub fn load_step(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, name: Option<&str>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        let pstep = self.ptr_to_step(ctx);
        let var_name = name
            .map(ToString::to_string)
            .or_else(|| self.name.map(|v| format!("{v}.step")))
            .unwrap_or_default();
        ctx.builder
            .build_load(pstep, var_name.as_str())
            .map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value)
            .unwrap()
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for RangeValue<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
    type Type = RangeType<'ctx>;
    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
        RangeType::from_type(self.value.get_type())
    }
    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.value
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<RangeValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: RangeValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_value()
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/utils/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/utils/mod.rs
@ -1,3 +0,0 @@
 pub use slice::*;
 mod slice;
--- a/nac3core/src/codegen/values/utils/slice.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/codegen/values/utils/slice.rs
@ -1,231 +0,0 @@
 use inkwell::{
    types::IntType,
    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
 };
 use nac3parser::ast::Expr;
 use crate::{
    codegen::{
        types::{structure::StructField, utils::SliceType},
        values::ProxyValue,
        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
    },
    typecheck::typedef::Type,
 };
 /// An IRRT representation of an (unresolved) slice.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct SliceValue<'ctx> {
    value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
    int_ty: IntType<'ctx>,
    llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    name: Option<&'ctx str>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> SliceValue<'ctx> {
    /// Checks whether `value` is an instance of `ContiguousNDArray`, returning [Err] if `value` is
    /// not an instance.
    pub fn is_representable(
        value: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
    ) -> Result<(), String> {
        <Self as ProxyValue<'ctx>>::Type::is_representable(value.get_type(), llvm_usize)
    }
    /// Creates an [`SliceValue`] from a [`PointerValue`].
    #[must_use]
    pub fn from_pointer_value(
        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
        int_ty: IntType<'ctx>,
        llvm_usize: IntType<'ctx>,
        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
    ) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(Self::is_representable(ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok());
        Self { value: ptr, int_ty, llvm_usize, name }
    }
    fn start_defined_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().start_defined
    }
    pub fn load_start_defined(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.start_defined_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    fn start_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().start
    }
    pub fn load_start(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.start_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    pub fn store_start(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>) {
        match value {
            Some(start) => {
                self.start_defined_field().set(
                    ctx,
                    self.value,
                    ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_all_ones(),
                    self.name,
                );
                self.start_field().set(ctx, self.value, start, self.name);
            }
            None => self.start_defined_field().set(
                ctx,
                self.value,
                ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(),
                self.name,
            ),
        }
    }
    fn stop_defined_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().stop_defined
    }
    pub fn load_stop_defined(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.stop_defined_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    fn stop_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().stop
    }
    pub fn load_stop(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.stop_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    pub fn store_stop(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>) {
        match value {
            Some(stop) => {
                self.stop_defined_field().set(
                    ctx,
                    self.value,
                    ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_all_ones(),
                    self.name,
                );
                self.stop_field().set(ctx, self.value, stop, self.name);
            }
            None => self.stop_defined_field().set(
                ctx,
                self.value,
                ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(),
                self.name,
            ),
        }
    }
    fn step_defined_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().step_defined
    }
    pub fn load_step_defined(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.step_defined_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    fn step_field(&self) -> StructField<'ctx, IntValue<'ctx>> {
        self.get_type().get_fields().step
    }
    pub fn load_step(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
        self.step_field().get(ctx, self.value, self.name)
    }
    pub fn store_step(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>) {
        match value {
            Some(step) => {
                self.step_defined_field().set(
                    ctx,
                    self.value,
                    ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_all_ones(),
                    self.name,
                );
                self.step_field().set(ctx, self.value, step, self.name);
            }
            None => self.step_defined_field().set(
                ctx,
                self.value,
                ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(),
                self.name,
            ),
        }
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> ProxyValue<'ctx> for SliceValue<'ctx> {
    type Base = PointerValue<'ctx>;
    type Type = SliceType<'ctx>;
    fn get_type(&self) -> Self::Type {
        Self::Type::from_type(self.value.get_type(), self.int_ty, self.llvm_usize)
    }
    fn as_base_value(&self) -> Self::Base {
        self.value
    }
 }
 impl<'ctx> From<SliceValue<'ctx>> for PointerValue<'ctx> {
    fn from(value: SliceValue<'ctx>) -> Self {
        value.as_base_value()
    }
 }
 /// A slice represented in compile-time by `start`, `stop` and `step`, all held as LLVM values.
 // TODO: Rename this to CTConstSlice
 #[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]
 pub struct RustSlice<'ctx> {
    int_ty: IntType<'ctx>,
    start: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>,
    stop: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>,
    step: Option<IntValue<'ctx>>,
 }
 impl<'ctx> RustSlice<'ctx> {
    /// Generate LLVM IR for an [`ExprKind::Slice`] and convert it into a [`RustSlice`].
    #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
    pub fn from_slice_expr<G: CodeGenerator>(
        generator: &mut G,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        lower: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>,
        upper: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>,
        step: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>,
    ) -> Result<RustSlice<'ctx>, String> {
        let mut value_mapper = |value_expr: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>| -> Result<_, String> {
            Ok(match value_expr {
                None => None,
                Some(value_expr) => {
                    let value_expr = generator
                        .gen_expr(ctx, value_expr)?
                        .map(|value| {
                            value.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, ctx.primitives.int32)
                        })
                        .unwrap()?;
                    Some(value_expr.into_int_value())
                }
            })
        };
        let start = value_mapper(lower)?;
        let stop = value_mapper(upper)?;
        let step = value_mapper(step)?;
        Ok(RustSlice { int_ty: ctx.ctx.i32_type(), start, stop, step })
    }
    /// Write the contents to an LLVM [`SliceValue`].
    pub fn write_to_slice(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, dst_slice_ptr: SliceValue<'ctx>) {
        assert_eq!(self.int_ty, dst_slice_ptr.int_ty);
        dst_slice_ptr.store_start(ctx, self.start);
        dst_slice_ptr.store_stop(ctx, self.stop);
        dst_slice_ptr.store_step(ctx, self.step);
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/lib.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/lib.rs
@ -1,4 +1,10 @@
-#![deny(future_incompatible, let_underscore, nonstandard_style, clippy::all)]
+#![deny(
    future_incompatible,
    let_underscore,
    nonstandard_style,
    rust_2024_compatibility,
    clippy::all
 )]
 #![warn(clippy::pedantic)]
 #![allow(
    dead_code,
@ -21,5 +27,3 @@ pub mod codegen;
 pub mod symbol_resolver;
 pub mod toplevel;
 pub mod typecheck;
 extern crate self as nac3core;
--- a/nac3core/src/symbol_resolver.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/symbol_resolver.rs
@ -1,15 +1,7 @@
-use std::{
+use std::fmt::Debug;
-    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+use std::rc::Rc;
-    fmt::{Debug, Display},
+use std::sync::Arc;
-    rc::Rc,
+use std::{collections::HashMap, collections::HashSet, fmt::Display};
    sync::Arc,
 };
 use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue};
 use itertools::{chain, izip, Itertools};
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
 use nac3parser::ast::{Constant, Expr, Location, StrRef};
 use crate::{
    codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
@ -19,6 +11,10 @@ use crate::{
        typedef::{Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
    },
 };
 use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue};
 use itertools::{chain, izip, Itertools};
 use nac3parser::ast::{Constant, Expr, Location, StrRef};
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
 #[derive(Clone, PartialEq, Debug)]
 pub enum SymbolValue {
@ -369,7 +365,6 @@ pub trait SymbolResolver {
        &self,
        str: StrRef,
        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
    ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>>;
    fn get_default_param_value(&self, expr: &Expr) -> Option<SymbolValue>;
--- a/nac3core/src/toplevel/builtins.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/toplevel/builtins.rs
@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 use std::iter::once;
 use helper::{debug_assert_prim_is_allowed, make_exception_fields, PrimDefDetails};
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use inkwell::{
    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
@ -10,22 +11,20 @@ use inkwell::{
 use itertools::Either;
 use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
 use super::{
    helper::{debug_assert_prim_is_allowed, make_exception_fields, PrimDef, PrimDefDetails},
    numpy::make_ndarray_ty,
    *,
 };
 use crate::{
    codegen::{
        builtin_fns,
        classes::{ProxyValue, RangeValue},
        numpy::*,
        stmt::exn_constructor,
        values::{ProxyValue, RangeValue},
    },
    symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, numpy::make_ndarray_ty},
    typecheck::typedef::{into_var_map, iter_type_vars, TypeVar, VarMap},
 };
 use super::*;
 type BuiltinInfo = Vec<(Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>, Option<Stmt>)>;
 pub fn get_exn_constructor(
@ -710,7 +709,7 @@ impl<'a> BuiltinBuilder<'a> {
                        let (zelf_ty, zelf) = obj.unwrap();
                        let zelf =
                            zelf.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, zelf_ty)?.into_pointer_value();
-                        let zelf = RangeValue::from_pointer_value(zelf, Some("range"));
+                        let zelf = RangeValue::from_ptr_val(zelf, Some("range"));
                        let mut start = None;
                        let mut stop = None;
--- a/nac3core/src/toplevel/composer.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/toplevel/composer.rs
--- a/nac3core/src/toplevel/helper.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/toplevel/helper.rs
@ -1,15 +1,14 @@
 use std::convert::TryInto;
 use crate::symbol_resolver::SymbolValue;
 use crate::toplevel::numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys;
 use crate::typecheck::typedef::{into_var_map, iter_type_vars, Mapping, TypeVarId, VarMap};
 use ast::ExprKind;
 use nac3parser::ast::{Constant, Location};
 use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
 use strum_macros::EnumIter;
-use nac3parser::ast::{Constant, ExprKind, Location};
+use super::*;
 use super::{numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys, *};
 use crate::{
    symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
    typecheck::typedef::{into_var_map, iter_type_vars, Mapping, TypeVarId, VarMap},
 };
 /// All primitive types and functions in nac3core.
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, EnumIter, PartialEq, Eq)]
@ -389,9 +388,6 @@ impl TopLevelDef {
                    r
                }
            ),
            TopLevelDef::Variable { name, ty, .. } => {
                format!("Variable {{ name: {name:?}, ty: {:?} }}", unifier.stringify(*ty),)
            }
        }
    }
 }
@ -593,18 +589,6 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
        }
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn make_top_level_variable_def(
        name: String,
        simple_name: StrRef,
        ty: Type,
        ty_decl: Option<Expr>,
        resolver: Option<Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>>,
        loc: Option<Location>,
    ) -> TopLevelDef {
        TopLevelDef::Variable { name, simple_name, ty, ty_decl, resolver, loc }
    }
    #[must_use]
    pub fn make_class_method_name(mut class_name: String, method_name: &str) -> String {
        class_name.push('.');
@ -624,6 +608,64 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
        Err(HashSet::from([format!("no method {method_name} in the current class")]))
    }
    /// get all base class def id of a class, excluding itself. \
    /// this function should called only after the direct parent is set
    /// and before all the ancestors are set
    /// and when we allow single inheritance \
    /// the order of the returned list is from the child to the deepest ancestor
    pub fn get_all_ancestors_helper(
        child: &TypeAnnotation,
        temp_def_list: &[Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>],
    ) -> Result<Vec<TypeAnnotation>, HashSet<String>> {
        let mut result: Vec<TypeAnnotation> = Vec::new();
        let mut parent = Self::get_parent(child, temp_def_list);
        while let Some(p) = parent {
            parent = Self::get_parent(&p, temp_def_list);
            let p_id = if let TypeAnnotation::CustomClass { id, .. } = &p {
                *id
            } else {
                unreachable!("must be class kind annotation")
            };
            // check cycle
            let no_cycle = result.iter().all(|x| {
                let TypeAnnotation::CustomClass { id, .. } = x else {
                    unreachable!("must be class kind annotation")
                };
                id.0 != p_id.0
            });
            if no_cycle {
                result.push(p);
            } else {
                return Err(HashSet::from(["cyclic inheritance detected".into()]));
            }
        }
        Ok(result)
    }
    /// should only be called when finding all ancestors, so panic when wrong
    fn get_parent(
        child: &TypeAnnotation,
        temp_def_list: &[Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>],
    ) -> Option<TypeAnnotation> {
        let child_id = if let TypeAnnotation::CustomClass { id, .. } = child {
            *id
        } else {
            unreachable!("should be class type annotation")
        };
        let child_def = temp_def_list.get(child_id.0).unwrap();
        let child_def = child_def.read();
        let TopLevelDef::Class { ancestors, .. } = &*child_def else {
            unreachable!("child must be top level class def")
        };
        if ancestors.is_empty() {
            None
        } else {
            Some(ancestors[0].clone())
        }
    }
    /// get the `var_id` of a given `TVar` type
    pub fn get_var_id(var_ty: Type, unifier: &mut Unifier) -> Result<TypeVarId, HashSet<String>> {
        if let TypeEnum::TVar { id, .. } = unifier.get_ty(var_ty).as_ref() {
@ -933,139 +975,6 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
            ))
        }
    }
    /// Parses the class type variables and direct parents
    /// we only allow single inheritance
    pub fn analyze_class_bases(
        class_def: &Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>,
        class_ast: &Option<Stmt>,
        temp_def_list: &[Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>],
        unifier: &mut Unifier,
        primitives_store: &PrimitiveStore,
    ) -> Result<(), HashSet<String>> {
        let mut class_def = class_def.write();
        let (class_def_id, class_ancestors, class_bases_ast, class_type_vars, class_resolver) = {
            let TopLevelDef::Class { object_id, ancestors, type_vars, resolver, .. } =
                &mut *class_def
            else {
                unreachable!()
            };
            let Some(ast::Located { node: ast::StmtKind::ClassDef { bases, .. }, .. }) = class_ast
            else {
                unreachable!()
            };
            (object_id, ancestors, bases, type_vars, resolver.as_ref().unwrap().as_ref())
        };
        let mut is_generic = false;
        let mut has_base = false;
        // Check class bases for typevars
        for b in class_bases_ast {
            match &b.node {
                // analyze typevars bounded to the class,
                // only support things like `class A(Generic[T, V])`,
                // things like `class A(Generic[T, V, ImportedModule.T])` is not supported
                // i.e. only simple names are allowed in the subscript
                // should update the TopLevelDef::Class.typevars and the TypeEnum::TObj.params
                ast::ExprKind::Subscript { value, slice, .. } if matches!(&value.node, ast::ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == &"Generic".into()) =>
                {
                    if is_generic {
                        return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
                            "only single Generic[...] is allowed (at {})",
                            b.location
                        )]));
                    }
                    is_generic = true;
                    let type_var_list: Vec<&ast::Expr<()>>;
                    // if `class A(Generic[T, V, G])`
                    if let ast::ExprKind::Tuple { elts, .. } = &slice.node {
                        type_var_list = elts.iter().collect_vec();
                    // `class A(Generic[T])`
                    } else {
                        type_var_list = vec![&**slice];
                    }
                    let type_vars = type_var_list
                        .into_iter()
                        .map(|e| {
                            class_resolver.parse_type_annotation(
                                temp_def_list,
                                unifier,
                                primitives_store,
                                e,
                            )
                        })
                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
                    class_type_vars.extend(type_vars);
                }
                ast::ExprKind::Name { .. } | ast::ExprKind::Subscript { .. } => {
                    if has_base {
                        return Err(HashSet::from([format!("a class definition can only have at most one base class declaration and one generic declaration (at {})", b.location )]));
                    }
                    has_base = true;
                    // the function parse_ast_to make sure that no type var occurred in
                    // bast_ty if it is a CustomClassKind
                    let base_ty = parse_ast_to_type_annotation_kinds(
                        class_resolver,
                        temp_def_list,
                        unifier,
                        primitives_store,
                        b,
                        vec![(*class_def_id, class_type_vars.clone())]
                            .into_iter()
                            .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>(),
                    )?;
                    if let TypeAnnotation::CustomClass { .. } = &base_ty {
                        class_ancestors.push(base_ty);
                    } else {
                        return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
                            "class base declaration can only be custom class (at {})",
                            b.location
                        )]));
                    }
                }
                _ => {
                    return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
                        "unsupported statement in class defintion (at {})",
                        b.location
                    )]));
                }
            }
        }
        Ok(())
    }
    /// gets all ancestors of a class
    pub fn analyze_class_ancestors(
        class_def: &Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>,
        temp_def_list: &[Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>],
    ) {
        // Check if class has a direct parent
        let mut class_def = class_def.write();
        let TopLevelDef::Class { ancestors, type_vars, object_id, .. } = &mut *class_def else {
            unreachable!()
        };
        let mut anc_set = HashMap::new();
        if let Some(ancestor) = ancestors.first() {
            let TypeAnnotation::CustomClass { id, .. } = ancestor else { unreachable!() };
            let TopLevelDef::Class { ancestors: parent_ancestors, .. } =
                &*temp_def_list[id.0].read()
            else {
                unreachable!()
            };
            for anc in parent_ancestors.iter().skip(1) {
                let TypeAnnotation::CustomClass { id, .. } = anc else { unreachable!() };
                anc_set.insert(id, anc.clone());
            }
            ancestors.extend(anc_set.into_values());
        }
        // push `self` as first ancestor of class
        ancestors.insert(0, make_self_type_annotation(type_vars.as_slice(), *object_id));
    }
 }
 pub fn parse_parameter_default_value(
@ -1209,23 +1118,3 @@ pub fn arraylike_get_ndims(unifier: &mut Unifier, ty: Type) -> u64 {
        _ => 0,
    }
 }
 /// Extract an ndarray's `ndims` [type][`Type`] in `u64`. Panic if not possible.
 /// The `ndims` must only contain 1 value.
 #[must_use]
 pub fn extract_ndims(unifier: &Unifier, ndims_ty: Type) -> u64 {
    let ndims_ty_enum = unifier.get_ty_immutable(ndims_ty);
    let TypeEnum::TLiteral { values, .. } = &*ndims_ty_enum else {
        panic!("ndims_ty should be a TLiteral");
    };
    assert_eq!(values.len(), 1, "ndims_ty TLiteral should only contain 1 value");
    let ndims = values[0].clone();
    u64::try_from(ndims).unwrap()
 }
 /// Return an ndarray's `ndims` as a typechecker [`Type`] from its `u64` value.
 pub fn create_ndims(unifier: &mut Unifier, ndims: u64) -> Type {
    unifier.get_fresh_literal(vec![SymbolValue::U64(ndims)], None)
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/toplevel/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/toplevel/mod.rs
@ -6,36 +6,36 @@ use std::{
    sync::Arc,
 };
-use inkwell::values::BasicValueEnum;
+use super::codegen::CodeGenContext;
-use itertools::Itertools;
+use super::typecheck::type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore;
-use parking_lot::RwLock;
+use super::typecheck::typedef::{
-
+    FunSignature, FuncArg, SharedUnifier, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap,
-use nac3parser::ast::{self, Expr, Location, Stmt, StrRef};
+};
 use crate::{
-    codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    codegen::CodeGenerator,
    symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, ValueEnum},
    typecheck::{
-        type_inferencer::{CodeLocation, PrimitiveStore},
+        type_inferencer::CodeLocation,
-        typedef::{
+        typedef::{CallId, TypeVarId},
            CallId, FunSignature, FuncArg, SharedUnifier, Type, TypeEnum, TypeVarId, Unifier,
            VarMap,
        },
    },
 };
-use composer::*;
+use inkwell::values::BasicValueEnum;
-use type_annotation::*;
+use itertools::Itertools;
 use nac3parser::ast::{self, Location, Stmt, StrRef};
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Clone, Copy, Hash, Debug)]
 pub struct DefinitionId(pub usize);
 pub mod builtins;
 pub mod composer;
 pub mod helper;
 pub mod numpy;
 pub mod type_annotation;
 use composer::*;
 use type_annotation::*;
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test;
 pub mod type_annotation;
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Clone, Copy, Hash, Debug)]
 pub struct DefinitionId(pub usize);
 type GenCallCallback = dyn for<'ctx, 'a> Fn(
        &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
@ -148,25 +148,6 @@ pub enum TopLevelDef {
        /// Definition location.
        loc: Option<Location>,
    },
    Variable {
        /// Qualified name of the global variable, should be unique globally.
        name: String,
        /// Simple name, the same as in method/function definition.
        simple_name: StrRef,
        /// Type of the global variable.
        ty: Type,
        /// The declared type of the global variable, or [`None`] if no type annotation is provided.
        ty_decl: Option<Expr>,
        /// Symbol resolver of the module defined the class.
        resolver: Option<Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>>,
        /// Definition location.
        loc: Option<Location>,
    },
 }
 pub struct TopLevelContext {
--- a/nac3core/src/toplevel/numpy.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/toplevel/numpy.rs
@ -1,10 +1,11 @@
-use itertools::Itertools;
+use crate::{
-
+    toplevel::helper::PrimDef,
-use super::helper::PrimDef;
+    typecheck::{
-use crate::typecheck::{
+        type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore,
-    type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore,
+        typedef::{Type, TypeEnum, TypeVarId, Unifier, VarMap},
-    typedef::{Type, TypeEnum, TypeVarId, Unifier, VarMap},
+    },
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 /// Creates a `ndarray` [`Type`] with the given type arguments.
 ///
--- a/nac3core/src/toplevel/snapshots/nac3coretopleveltest__test_analyze__generic_class.snap
+++ b/nac3core/src/toplevel/snapshots/nac3coretopleveltest__test_analyze__generic_class.snap
@ -3,10 +3,10 @@ source: nac3core/src/toplevel/test.rs
 expression: res_vec
 ---
 [
    "Class {\nname: \"Generic_A\",\nancestors: [\"Generic_A[V]\", \"B\"],\nfields: [\"aa\", \"a\"],\nmethods: [(\"__init__\", \"fn[[], none]\"), (\"foo\", \"fn[[b:T], none]\"), (\"fun\", \"fn[[a:int32], V]\")],\ntype_vars: [\"V\"]\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"Generic_A.__init__\",\nsig: \"fn[[], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"Generic_A.fun\",\nsig: \"fn[[a:int32], V]\",\nvar_id: [TypeVarId(241)]\n}\n",
    "Class {\nname: \"B\",\nancestors: [\"B\"],\nfields: [\"aa\"],\nmethods: [(\"__init__\", \"fn[[], none]\"), (\"foo\", \"fn[[b:T], none]\")],\ntype_vars: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"B.__init__\",\nsig: \"fn[[], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"B.foo\",\nsig: \"fn[[b:T], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Class {\nname: \"Generic_A\",\nancestors: [\"Generic_A[V]\", \"B\"],\nfields: [\"aa\", \"a\"],\nmethods: [(\"__init__\", \"fn[[], none]\"), (\"foo\", \"fn[[b:T], none]\"), (\"fun\", \"fn[[a:int32], V]\")],\ntype_vars: [\"V\"]\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"Generic_A.__init__\",\nsig: \"fn[[], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"Generic_A.fun\",\nsig: \"fn[[a:int32], V]\",\nvar_id: [TypeVarId(246)]\n}\n",
 ]
--- a/nac3core/src/toplevel/snapshots/nac3coretopleveltest__test_analyze__simple_class_compose.snap
+++ b/nac3core/src/toplevel/snapshots/nac3coretopleveltest__test_analyze__simple_class_compose.snap
@ -7,11 +7,11 @@ expression: res_vec
    "Function {\nname: \"A.__init__\",\nsig: \"fn[[], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"A.fun\",\nsig: \"fn[[b:B], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"A.foo\",\nsig: \"fn[[a:T, b:V], none]\",\nvar_id: [TypeVarId(249)]\n}\n",
    "Class {\nname: \"B\",\nancestors: [\"B\", \"C\", \"A\"],\nfields: [\"a\"],\nmethods: [(\"__init__\", \"fn[[], none]\"), (\"fun\", \"fn[[b:B], none]\"), (\"foo\", \"fn[[a:T, b:V], none]\")],\ntype_vars: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"B.__init__\",\nsig: \"fn[[], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Class {\nname: \"C\",\nancestors: [\"C\", \"A\"],\nfields: [\"a\"],\nmethods: [(\"__init__\", \"fn[[], none]\"), (\"fun\", \"fn[[b:B], none]\"), (\"foo\", \"fn[[a:T, b:V], none]\")],\ntype_vars: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"C.__init__\",\nsig: \"fn[[], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"C.fun\",\nsig: \"fn[[b:B], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Class {\nname: \"B\",\nancestors: [\"B\", \"C\", \"A\"],\nfields: [\"a\"],\nmethods: [(\"__init__\", \"fn[[], none]\"), (\"fun\", \"fn[[b:B], none]\"), (\"foo\", \"fn[[a:T, b:V], none]\")],\ntype_vars: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"B.__init__\",\nsig: \"fn[[], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"foo\",\nsig: \"fn[[a:A], none]\",\nvar_id: []\n}\n",
    "Function {\nname: \"ff\",\nsig: \"fn[[a:T], V]\",\nvar_id: [TypeVarId(257)]\n}\n",
 ]
--- a/nac3core/src/toplevel/test.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/toplevel/test.rs
@ -1,23 +1,21 @@
-use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+use super::*;
-
+use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
-use indoc::indoc;
+use crate::typecheck::typedef::into_var_map;
 use parking_lot::Mutex;
 use test_case::test_case;
 use nac3parser::{
    ast::{fold::Fold, FileName},
    parser::parse_program,
 };
 use super::{helper::PrimDef, DefinitionId, *};
 use crate::{
    codegen::CodeGenContext,
    symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, ValueEnum},
    toplevel::DefinitionId,
    typecheck::{
        type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore,
-        typedef::{into_var_map, Type, Unifier},
+        typedef::{Type, Unifier},
    },
 };
 use indoc::indoc;
 use nac3parser::ast::FileName;
 use nac3parser::{ast::fold::Fold, parser::parse_program};
 use parking_lot::Mutex;
 use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 use test_case::test_case;
 struct ResolverInternal {
    id_to_type: Mutex<HashMap<StrRef, Type>>,
@ -64,7 +62,6 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
        &self,
        _: StrRef,
        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
    ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>> {
        unimplemented!()
    }
@ -229,6 +226,11 @@ fn test_simple_function_analyze(source: &[&str], tys: &[&str], names: &[&str]) {
                def foo(self, a: T, b: V):
                    pass
        "},
        indoc! {"
            class B(C):
                def __init__(self):
                    pass
        "},
        indoc! {"
            class C(A):
                def __init__(self):
@ -237,11 +239,6 @@ fn test_simple_function_analyze(source: &[&str], tys: &[&str], names: &[&str]) {
                    a = 1
                    pass
        "},
        indoc! {"
            class B(C):
                def __init__(self):
                    pass
        "},
        indoc! {"
            def foo(a: A):
                pass
@ -256,14 +253,6 @@ fn test_simple_function_analyze(source: &[&str], tys: &[&str], names: &[&str]) {
 )]
 #[test_case(
    &[
        indoc! {"
        class B:
            aa: bool
            def __init__(self):
                self.aa = False
            def foo(self, b: T):
                pass
        "},
        indoc! {"
            class Generic_A(Generic[V], B):
                a: int64
@ -271,6 +260,14 @@ fn test_simple_function_analyze(source: &[&str], tys: &[&str], names: &[&str]) {
                    self.a = 123123123123
                def fun(self, a: int32) -> V:
                    pass
        "},
        indoc! {"
            class B:
                aa: bool
                def __init__(self):
                    self.aa = False
                def foo(self, b: T):
                    pass
        "}
    ],
    &[];
@ -390,18 +387,18 @@ fn test_simple_function_analyze(source: &[&str], tys: &[&str], names: &[&str]) {
                    pass
        "}
    ],
-    &["NameError: name 'B' is not defined (at unknown:1:9)"];
+    &["cyclic inheritance detected"];
    "cyclic1"
 )]
 #[test_case(
    &[
        indoc! {"
-        class B(Generic[V, T], C[int32]):
+            class A(B[bool, int64]):
-            def __init__(self):
+                def __init__(self):
-                pass
+                    pass
        "},
        indoc! {"
-            class A(B[bool, int64]):
+            class B(Generic[V, T], C[int32]):
                def __init__(self):
                    pass
        "},
@ -411,7 +408,7 @@ fn test_simple_function_analyze(source: &[&str], tys: &[&str], names: &[&str]) {
                    pass
        "},
    ],
-    &["NameError: name 'C' is not defined (at unknown:1:25)"];
+    &["cyclic inheritance detected"];
    "cyclic2"
 )]
 #[test_case(
@ -435,6 +432,11 @@ fn test_simple_function_analyze(source: &[&str], tys: &[&str], names: &[&str]) {
 )]
 #[test_case(
    &[
        indoc! {"
            class A(B, Generic[T], C):
                def __init__(self):
                    pass
        "},
        indoc! {"
            class B:
                def __init__(self):
@ -444,11 +446,6 @@ fn test_simple_function_analyze(source: &[&str], tys: &[&str], names: &[&str]) {
            class C:
                def __init__(self):
                    pass
        "},
        indoc! {"
        class A(B, Generic[T], C):
            def __init__(self):
                pass
        "}
    ],
--- a/nac3core/src/toplevel/type_annotation.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/toplevel/type_annotation.rs
@ -1,12 +1,9 @@
-use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
+use super::*;
-
+use crate::symbol_resolver::SymbolValue;
 use crate::toplevel::helper::{PrimDef, PrimDefDetails};
 use crate::typecheck::typedef::VarMap;
 use nac3parser::ast::Constant;
-
+use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
 use super::{
    helper::{PrimDef, PrimDefDetails},
    *,
 };
 use crate::{symbol_resolver::SymbolValue, typecheck::typedef::VarMap};
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
 pub enum TypeAnnotation {
@ -100,13 +97,7 @@ pub fn parse_ast_to_type_annotation_kinds<T, S: std::hash::BuildHasher + Clone>(
            Ok(TypeAnnotation::CustomClass { id: PrimDef::Exception.id(), params: Vec::default() })
        } else if let Ok(obj_id) = resolver.get_identifier_def(*id) {
            let type_vars = {
-                let Some(top_level_def) = top_level_defs.get(obj_id.0) else {
+                let def_read = top_level_defs[obj_id.0].try_read();
                    return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
                        "NameError: name '{id}' is not defined (at {})",
                        expr.location
                    )]));
                };
                let def_read = top_level_def.try_read();
                if let Some(def_read) = def_read {
                    if let TopLevelDef::Class { type_vars, .. } = &*def_read {
                        type_vars.clone()
@ -161,17 +152,12 @@ pub fn parse_ast_to_type_annotation_kinds<T, S: std::hash::BuildHasher + Clone>(
            }
            let obj_id = resolver.get_identifier_def(*id)?;
            let type_vars = {
-                let Some(top_level_def) = top_level_defs.get(obj_id.0) else {
+                let def_read = top_level_defs[obj_id.0].try_read();
                    return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
                        "NameError: name '{id}' is not defined (at {})",
                        expr.location
                    )]));
                };
                let def_read = top_level_def.try_read();
                if let Some(def_read) = def_read {
                    let TopLevelDef::Class { type_vars, .. } = &*def_read else {
                        unreachable!("must be class here")
                    };
                    type_vars.clone()
                } else {
                    locked.get(&obj_id).unwrap().clone()
--- a/nac3core/src/typecheck/function_check.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/typecheck/function_check.rs
@ -1,19 +1,13 @@
-use std::{
+use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
    iter::once,
 };
 use super::type_inferencer::Inferencer;
 use super::typedef::{Type, TypeEnum};
 use nac3parser::ast::{
    self, Constant, Expr, ExprKind,
    Operator::{LShift, RShift},
    Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef,
 };
-
+use std::{collections::HashSet, iter::once};
 use super::{
    type_inferencer::{DeclarationSource, IdentifierInfo, Inferencer},
    typedef::{Type, TypeEnum},
 };
 use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
 impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
    fn should_have_value(&mut self, expr: &Expr<Option<Type>>) -> Result<(), HashSet<String>> {
@ -27,29 +21,15 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
    fn check_pattern(
        &mut self,
        pattern: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
-        defined_identifiers: &mut HashMap<StrRef, IdentifierInfo>,
+        defined_identifiers: &mut HashSet<StrRef>,
    ) -> Result<(), HashSet<String>> {
        match &pattern.node {
            ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == &"none".into() => {
                Err(HashSet::from([format!("cannot assign to a `none` (at {})", pattern.location)]))
            }
            ExprKind::Name { id, .. } => {
-                // If `id` refers to a declared symbol, reject this assignment if it is used in the
+                if !defined_identifiers.contains(id) {
-                // context of an (implicit) global variable
+                    defined_identifiers.insert(*id);
                if let Some(id_info) = defined_identifiers.get(id) {
                    if matches!(
                        id_info.source,
                        DeclarationSource::Global { is_explicit: Some(false) }
                    ) {
                        return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
                            "cannot access local variable '{id}' before it is declared (at {})",
                            pattern.location
                        )]));
                    }
                }
                if !defined_identifiers.contains_key(id) {
                    defined_identifiers.insert(*id, IdentifierInfo::default());
                }
                self.should_have_value(pattern)?;
                Ok(())
@ -89,7 +69,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
    fn check_expr(
        &mut self,
        expr: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
-        defined_identifiers: &mut HashMap<StrRef, IdentifierInfo>,
+        defined_identifiers: &mut HashSet<StrRef>,
    ) -> Result<(), HashSet<String>> {
        // there are some cases where the custom field is None
        if let Some(ty) = &expr.custom {
@ -110,7 +90,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                    return Ok(());
                }
                self.should_have_value(expr)?;
-                if !defined_identifiers.contains_key(id) {
+                if !defined_identifiers.contains(id) {
                    match self.function_data.resolver.get_symbol_type(
                        self.unifier,
                        &self.top_level.definitions.read(),
@ -118,22 +98,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                        *id,
                    ) {
                        Ok(_) => {
-                            let is_global = self.is_id_global(*id);
+                            self.defined_identifiers.insert(*id);
                            defined_identifiers.insert(
                                *id,
                                IdentifierInfo {
                                    source: match is_global {
                                        Some(true) => {
                                            DeclarationSource::Global { is_explicit: Some(false) }
                                        }
                                        Some(false) => {
                                            DeclarationSource::Global { is_explicit: None }
                                        }
                                        None => DeclarationSource::Local,
                                    },
                                },
                            );
                        }
                        Err(e) => {
                            return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
@ -206,7 +171,9 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                let mut defined_identifiers = defined_identifiers.clone();
                for arg in &args.args {
                    // TODO: should we check the types here?
-                    defined_identifiers.entry(arg.node.arg).or_default();
+                    if !defined_identifiers.contains(&arg.node.arg) {
                        defined_identifiers.insert(arg.node.arg);
                    }
                }
                self.check_expr(body, &mut defined_identifiers)?;
            }
@ -269,7 +236,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
    fn check_stmt(
        &mut self,
        stmt: &Stmt<Option<Type>>,
-        defined_identifiers: &mut HashMap<StrRef, IdentifierInfo>,
+        defined_identifiers: &mut HashSet<StrRef>,
    ) -> Result<bool, HashSet<String>> {
        match &stmt.node {
            StmtKind::For { target, iter, body, orelse, .. } => {
@ -295,11 +262,9 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                let body_returned = self.check_block(body, &mut body_identifiers)?;
                let orelse_returned = self.check_block(orelse, &mut orelse_identifiers)?;
-                for ident in body_identifiers.keys() {
+                for ident in &body_identifiers {
-                    if !defined_identifiers.contains_key(ident)
+                    if !defined_identifiers.contains(ident) && orelse_identifiers.contains(ident) {
-                        && orelse_identifiers.contains_key(ident)
+                        defined_identifiers.insert(*ident);
                    {
                        defined_identifiers.insert(*ident, IdentifierInfo::default());
                    }
                }
                Ok(body_returned && orelse_returned)
@ -330,7 +295,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                    let mut defined_identifiers = defined_identifiers.clone();
                    let ast::ExcepthandlerKind::ExceptHandler { name, body, .. } = &handler.node;
                    if let Some(name) = name {
-                        defined_identifiers.insert(*name, IdentifierInfo::default());
+                        defined_identifiers.insert(*name);
                    }
                    self.check_block(body, &mut defined_identifiers)?;
                }
@ -394,44 +359,6 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                }
                Ok(true)
            }
            StmtKind::Global { names, .. } => {
                for id in names {
                    if let Some(id_info) = defined_identifiers.get(id) {
                        if id_info.source == DeclarationSource::Local {
                            return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
                                "name '{id}' is referenced prior to global declaration at {}",
                                stmt.location,
                            )]));
                        }
                        continue;
                    }
                    match self.function_data.resolver.get_symbol_type(
                        self.unifier,
                        &self.top_level.definitions.read(),
                        self.primitives,
                        *id,
                    ) {
                        Ok(_) => {
                            defined_identifiers.insert(
                                *id,
                                IdentifierInfo {
                                    source: DeclarationSource::Global { is_explicit: Some(true) },
                                },
                            );
                        }
                        Err(e) => {
                            return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
                                "type error at identifier `{}` ({}) at {}",
                                id, e, stmt.location
                            )]))
                        }
                    }
                }
                Ok(false)
            }
            // break, raise, etc.
            _ => Ok(false),
        }
@ -440,7 +367,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
    pub fn check_block(
        &mut self,
        block: &[Stmt<Option<Type>>],
-        defined_identifiers: &mut HashMap<StrRef, IdentifierInfo>,
+        defined_identifiers: &mut HashSet<StrRef>,
    ) -> Result<bool, HashSet<String>> {
        let mut ret = false;
        for stmt in block {
--- a/nac3core/src/typecheck/magic_methods.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/typecheck/magic_methods.rs
@ -1,21 +1,17 @@
-use std::{cmp::max, collections::HashMap, rc::Rc};
+use crate::symbol_resolver::SymbolValue;
-
+use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
-use itertools::{iproduct, Itertools};
+use crate::toplevel::numpy::{make_ndarray_ty, unpack_ndarray_var_tys};
-use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
+use crate::typecheck::{
 use nac3parser::ast::{Cmpop, Operator, StrRef, Unaryop};
 use super::{
    type_inferencer::*,
    typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
 };
-use crate::{
+use itertools::{iproduct, Itertools};
-    symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
+use nac3parser::ast::StrRef;
-    toplevel::{
+use nac3parser::ast::{Cmpop, Operator, Unaryop};
-        helper::PrimDef,
+use std::cmp::max;
-        numpy::{make_ndarray_ty, unpack_ndarray_var_tys},
+use std::collections::HashMap;
-    },
+use std::rc::Rc;
-};
+use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
 /// The variant of a binary operator.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
--- a/nac3core/src/typecheck/type_error.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/typecheck/type_error.rs
@ -1,13 +1,14 @@
-use std::{collections::HashMap, fmt::Display};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::fmt::Display;
-use itertools::Itertools;
+use crate::typecheck::{magic_methods::HasOpInfo, typedef::TypeEnum};
 use nac3parser::ast::{Cmpop, Location, StrRef};
 use super::{
-    magic_methods::{Binop, HasOpInfo},
+    magic_methods::Binop,
-    typedef::{RecordKey, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier},
+    typedef::{RecordKey, Type, Unifier},
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use nac3parser::ast::{Cmpop, Location, StrRef};
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub enum TypeErrorKind {
--- a/nac3core/src/typecheck/type_inferencer/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/typecheck/type_inferencer/mod.rs
@ -1,36 +1,32 @@
-use std::{
+use std::cmp::max;
-    cell::RefCell,
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
-    cmp::max,
+use std::convert::{From, TryInto};
-    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+use std::iter::once;
-    convert::{From, TryInto},
+use std::{cell::RefCell, sync::Arc};
    iter::once,
    sync::Arc,
 };
 use itertools::{izip, Itertools};
 use nac3parser::ast::{
    self,
    fold::{self, Fold},
    Arguments, Comprehension, ExprContext, ExprKind, Ident, Located, Location, StrRef,
 };
 use super::{
    magic_methods::*,
    type_error::{TypeError, TypeErrorKind},
    typedef::{
-        into_var_map, iter_type_vars, Call, CallId, FunSignature, FuncArg, Mapping, OperatorInfo,
+        into_var_map, iter_type_vars, Call, CallId, FunSignature, FuncArg, OperatorInfo,
        RecordField, RecordKey, Type, TypeEnum, TypeVar, Unifier, VarMap,
    },
 };
 use crate::toplevel::type_annotation::TypeAnnotation;
 use crate::{
    symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, SymbolValue},
    toplevel::{
        helper::{arraylike_flatten_element_type, arraylike_get_ndims, PrimDef},
        numpy::{make_ndarray_ty, unpack_ndarray_var_tys},
        type_annotation::TypeAnnotation,
        TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef,
    },
    typecheck::typedef::Mapping,
 };
 use itertools::{izip, Itertools};
 use nac3parser::ast::{
    self,
    fold::{self, Fold},
    Arguments, Comprehension, ExprContext, ExprKind, Located, Location, StrRef,
 };
 #[cfg(test)]
@ -88,40 +84,6 @@ impl PrimitiveStore {
    }
 }
 /// The location where an identifier declaration refers to.
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
 pub enum DeclarationSource {
    /// Local scope.
    Local,
    /// Global scope.
    Global {
        /// Whether the identifier is declared by the use of `global` statement. This field is
        /// [`None`] if the identifier does not refer to a variable.
        is_explicit: Option<bool>,
    },
 }
 /// Information regarding a defined identifier.
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
 pub struct IdentifierInfo {
    /// Whether this identifier refers to a global variable.
    pub source: DeclarationSource,
 }
 impl Default for IdentifierInfo {
    fn default() -> Self {
        IdentifierInfo { source: DeclarationSource::Local }
    }
 }
 impl IdentifierInfo {
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new() -> IdentifierInfo {
        IdentifierInfo::default()
    }
 }
 pub struct FunctionData {
    pub resolver: Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>,
    pub return_type: Option<Type>,
@ -130,7 +92,7 @@ pub struct FunctionData {
 pub struct Inferencer<'a> {
    pub top_level: &'a TopLevelContext,
-    pub defined_identifiers: HashMap<StrRef, IdentifierInfo>,
+    pub defined_identifiers: HashSet<StrRef>,
    pub function_data: &'a mut FunctionData,
    pub unifier: &'a mut Unifier,
    pub primitives: &'a PrimitiveStore,
@ -262,7 +224,9 @@ impl<'a> Fold<()> for Inferencer<'a> {
                                handler.location,
                            ));
                            if let Some(name) = name {
-                                self.defined_identifiers.entry(name).or_default();
+                                if !self.defined_identifiers.contains(&name) {
                                    self.defined_identifiers.insert(name);
                                }
                                if let Some(old_typ) = self.variable_mapping.insert(name, typ) {
                                    let loc = handler.location;
                                    self.unifier.unify(old_typ, typ).map_err(|e| {
@ -414,7 +378,6 @@ impl<'a> Fold<()> for Inferencer<'a> {
            | ast::StmtKind::Continue { .. }
            | ast::StmtKind::Expr { .. }
            | ast::StmtKind::For { .. }
            | ast::StmtKind::Global { .. }
            | ast::StmtKind::Pass { .. }
            | ast::StmtKind::Try { .. } => {}
            ast::StmtKind::If { test, .. } | ast::StmtKind::While { test, .. } => {
@ -536,8 +499,9 @@ impl<'a> Fold<()> for Inferencer<'a> {
            }
            ast::StmtKind::Assert { test, msg, .. } => {
                self.unify(test.custom.unwrap(), self.primitives.bool, &test.location)?;
-                if let Some(m) = msg {
+                match msg {
-                    self.unify(m.custom.unwrap(), self.primitives.str, &m.location)?;
+                    Some(m) => self.unify(m.custom.unwrap(), self.primitives.str, &m.location)?,
                    None => (),
                }
            }
            _ => return report_error("Unsupported statement type", stmt.location),
@ -585,7 +549,7 @@ impl<'a> Fold<()> for Inferencer<'a> {
                        unreachable!("must be tobj")
                    }
                } else {
-                    if !self.defined_identifiers.contains_key(id) {
+                    if !self.defined_identifiers.contains(id) {
                        match self.function_data.resolver.get_symbol_type(
                            self.unifier,
                            &self.top_level.definitions.read(),
@ -593,22 +557,7 @@ impl<'a> Fold<()> for Inferencer<'a> {
                            *id,
                        ) {
                            Ok(_) => {
-                                let is_global = self.is_id_global(*id);
+                                self.defined_identifiers.insert(*id);
                                self.defined_identifiers.insert(
                                    *id,
                                    IdentifierInfo {
                                        source: match is_global {
                                            Some(true) => DeclarationSource::Global {
                                                is_explicit: Some(false),
                                            },
                                            Some(false) => {
                                                DeclarationSource::Global { is_explicit: None }
                                            }
                                            None => DeclarationSource::Local,
                                        },
                                    },
                                );
                            }
                            Err(e) => {
                                return report_error(
@ -673,8 +622,8 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
    fn infer_pattern<T>(&mut self, pattern: &ast::Expr<T>) -> Result<(), InferenceError> {
        match &pattern.node {
            ExprKind::Name { id, .. } => {
-                if !self.defined_identifiers.contains_key(id) {
+                if !self.defined_identifiers.contains(id) {
-                    self.defined_identifiers.insert(*id, IdentifierInfo::default());
+                    self.defined_identifiers.insert(*id);
                }
                Ok(())
            }
@ -783,8 +732,8 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
        let mut defined_identifiers = self.defined_identifiers.clone();
        for arg in &args.args {
            let name = &arg.node.arg;
-            if !defined_identifiers.contains_key(name) {
+            if !defined_identifiers.contains(name) {
-                defined_identifiers.insert(*name, IdentifierInfo::default());
+                defined_identifiers.insert(*name);
            }
        }
        let fn_args: Vec<_> = args
@ -2684,22 +2633,4 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
        self.constrain(body.custom.unwrap(), orelse.custom.unwrap(), &body.location)?;
        Ok(body.custom.unwrap())
    }
    /// Determines whether the given `id` refers to a global symbol.
    ///
    /// Returns `Some(true)` if `id` refers to a global variable, `Some(false)` if `id` refers to a
    /// class/function, and `None` if `id` refers to a local symbol.
    pub(super) fn is_id_global(&self, id: Ident) -> Option<bool> {
        self.top_level
            .definitions
            .read()
            .iter()
            .map(|def| match *def.read() {
                TopLevelDef::Class { name, .. } => (name, false),
                TopLevelDef::Function { simple_name, .. } => (simple_name, false),
                TopLevelDef::Variable { simple_name, .. } => (simple_name, true),
            })
            .find(|(global, _)| global == &id)
            .map(|(_, has_explicit_prop)| has_explicit_prop)
    }
 }
--- a/nac3core/src/typecheck/type_inferencer/test.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/typecheck/type_inferencer/test.rs
@ -1,19 +1,17 @@
-use std::iter::zip;
+use super::super::{magic_methods::with_fields, typedef::*};
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use indoc::indoc;
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
 use test_case::test_case;
 use nac3parser::{ast::FileName, parser::parse_program};
 use super::*;
 use crate::{
-    codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    codegen::CodeGenContext,
    symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
    typecheck::{magic_methods::with_fields, typedef::*},
 };
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use indoc::indoc;
 use nac3parser::ast::FileName;
 use nac3parser::parser::parse_program;
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
 use std::iter::zip;
 use test_case::test_case;
 struct Resolver {
    id_to_type: HashMap<StrRef, Type>,
@ -43,7 +41,6 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
        &self,
        _: StrRef,
        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
        _: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
    ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>> {
        unimplemented!()
    }
@ -520,7 +517,7 @@ impl TestEnvironment {
            primitives: &mut self.primitives,
            virtual_checks: &mut self.virtual_checks,
            calls: &mut self.calls,
-            defined_identifiers: HashMap::default(),
+            defined_identifiers: HashSet::default(),
            in_handler: false,
        }
    }
@ -596,9 +593,8 @@ fn test_basic(source: &str, mapping: &HashMap<&str, &str>, virtuals: &[(&str, &s
    println!("source:\n{source}");
    let mut env = TestEnvironment::new();
    let id_to_name = std::mem::take(&mut env.id_to_name);
-    let mut defined_identifiers: HashMap<_, _> =
+    let mut defined_identifiers: HashSet<_> = env.identifier_mapping.keys().copied().collect();
-        env.identifier_mapping.keys().copied().map(|id| (id, IdentifierInfo::default())).collect();
+    defined_identifiers.insert("virtual".into());
    defined_identifiers.insert("virtual".into(), IdentifierInfo::default());
    let mut inferencer = env.get_inferencer();
    inferencer.defined_identifiers.clone_from(&defined_identifiers);
    let statements = parse_program(source, FileName::default()).unwrap();
@ -743,9 +739,8 @@ fn test_primitive_magic_methods(source: &str, mapping: &HashMap<&str, &str>) {
    println!("source:\n{source}");
    let mut env = TestEnvironment::basic_test_env();
    let id_to_name = std::mem::take(&mut env.id_to_name);
-    let mut defined_identifiers: HashMap<_, _> =
+    let mut defined_identifiers: HashSet<_> = env.identifier_mapping.keys().copied().collect();
-        env.identifier_mapping.keys().copied().map(|id| (id, IdentifierInfo::default())).collect();
+    defined_identifiers.insert("virtual".into());
    defined_identifiers.insert("virtual".into(), IdentifierInfo::default());
    let mut inferencer = env.get_inferencer();
    inferencer.defined_identifiers.clone_from(&defined_identifiers);
    let statements = parse_program(source, FileName::default()).unwrap();
--- a/nac3core/src/typecheck/typedef/mod.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/typecheck/typedef/mod.rs
@ -1,28 +1,21 @@
-use std::{
+use super::magic_methods::{Binop, HasOpInfo};
-    borrow::Cow,
+use super::type_error::{TypeError, TypeErrorKind};
-    cell::RefCell,
+use super::unification_table::{UnificationKey, UnificationTable};
-    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+use crate::symbol_resolver::SymbolValue;
-    fmt::{self, Display},
+use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
-    iter::{repeat, zip},
+use crate::toplevel::{DefinitionId, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef};
-    rc::Rc,
+use crate::typecheck::magic_methods::OpInfo;
-    sync::{Arc, Mutex},
+use crate::typecheck::type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore;
 };
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use itertools::{repeat_n, Itertools};
 use nac3parser::ast::{Cmpop, Location, StrRef, Unaryop};
-
+use std::cell::RefCell;
-use super::{
+use std::collections::HashMap;
-    magic_methods::{Binop, HasOpInfo, OpInfo},
+use std::fmt::{self, Display};
-    type_error::{TypeError, TypeErrorKind},
+use std::iter::{repeat, zip};
-    type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore,
+use std::rc::Rc;
-    unification_table::{UnificationKey, UnificationTable},
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
-};
+use std::{borrow::Cow, collections::HashSet};
 use crate::{
    symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, DefinitionId, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef},
 };
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test;
--- a/nac3core/src/typecheck/typedef/test.rs
+++ b/nac3core/src/typecheck/typedef/test.rs
@ -1,12 +1,10 @@
-use std::collections::HashMap;
+use super::super::magic_methods::with_fields;
-
+use super::*;
 use indoc::indoc;
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use test_case::test_case;
 use super::*;
 use crate::typecheck::magic_methods::with_fields;
 impl Unifier {
    /// Check whether two types are equal.
    fn eq(&mut self, a: Type, b: Type) -> bool {
--- a/nac3ld/src/dwarf.rs
+++ b/nac3ld/src/dwarf.rs
@ -24,15 +24,26 @@ pub const DW_EH_PE_aligned: u8 = 0x50;
 pub const DW_EH_PE_indirect: u8 = 0x80;
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct DwarfReader<'a> {
    pub slice: &'a [u8],
    pub virt_addr: u32,
    base_slice: &'a [u8],
    base_virt_addr: u32,
 }
 impl<'a> DwarfReader<'a> {
    pub fn new(slice: &[u8], virt_addr: u32) -> DwarfReader {
-        DwarfReader { slice, virt_addr }
+        DwarfReader { slice, virt_addr, base_slice: slice, base_virt_addr: virt_addr }
    }
    /// Creates a new instance from another instance of [DwarfReader], optionally removing any
    /// offsets previously applied to the other instance.
    pub fn from_reader(other: &DwarfReader<'a>, reset_offset: bool) -> DwarfReader<'a> {
        if reset_offset {
            DwarfReader::new(other.base_slice, other.base_virt_addr)
        } else {
            DwarfReader::new(other.slice, other.virt_addr)
        }
    }
    pub fn offset(&mut self, offset: u32) {
@ -79,7 +90,6 @@ impl<'a> DwarfReader<'a> {
    pub fn read_u8(&mut self) -> u8 {
        let val = self.slice[0];
        self.slice = &self.slice[1..];
        self.virt_addr += 1;
        val
    }
 }
@ -91,7 +101,6 @@ macro_rules! impl_read_fn {
                pub fn $byteorder_fn(&mut self) -> $type {
                    let val = LittleEndian::$byteorder_fn(self.slice);
                    self.slice = &self.slice[mem::size_of::<$type>()..];
                    self.virt_addr += mem::size_of::<$type>() as u32;
                    val
                }
            )*
@ -217,7 +226,7 @@ impl<'a> EH_Frame<'a> {
    /// Returns an [Iterator] over all Call Frame Information (CFI) records.
    pub fn cfi_records(&self) -> CFI_Records<'a> {
-        let reader = self.reader.clone();
+        let reader = DwarfReader::from_reader(&self.reader, true);
        let len = reader.slice.len();
        CFI_Records { reader, available: len }
@ -248,7 +257,7 @@ impl<'a> CFI_Record<'a> {
            0xFFFF_FFFF => unimplemented!(),
            _ => {
-                let mut fde_reader = cie_reader.clone();
+                let mut fde_reader = DwarfReader::from_reader(cie_reader, false);
                fde_reader.offset(length);
                fde_reader
            }
@ -267,7 +276,7 @@ impl<'a> CFI_Record<'a> {
        // Skip code/data alignment factors & return address register along the way as well
        // We only tackle the case where 'z' and 'R' are part of the augmentation string, otherwise
        // we cannot get the addresses to make .eh_frame_hdr
-        let mut aug_data_reader = cie_reader.clone();
+        let mut aug_data_reader = DwarfReader::from_reader(cie_reader, false);
        let mut aug_str_len = 0;
        loop {
            if aug_data_reader.read_u8() == b'\0' {
@ -310,7 +319,7 @@ impl<'a> CFI_Record<'a> {
    /// Returns a [DwarfReader] initialized to the first Frame Description Entry (FDE) of this CFI
    /// record.
    pub fn get_fde_reader(&self) -> DwarfReader<'a> {
-        self.fde_reader.clone()
+        DwarfReader::from_reader(&self.fde_reader, true)
    }
    /// Returns an [Iterator] over all Frame Description Entries (FDEs).
@ -338,7 +347,7 @@ impl<'a> Iterator for CFI_Records<'a> {
                return None;
            }
-            let mut this_reader = self.reader.clone();
+            let mut this_reader = DwarfReader::from_reader(&self.reader, false);
            // Remove the length of the header and the content from the counter
            let length = self.reader.read_u32();
@ -351,7 +360,7 @@ impl<'a> Iterator for CFI_Records<'a> {
            // Remove the length of the header and the content from the counter
            self.available -= length + mem::size_of::<u32>();
-            let mut next_reader = self.reader.clone();
+            let mut next_reader = DwarfReader::from_reader(&self.reader, false);
            next_reader.offset(length as u32);
            let cie_ptr = self.reader.read_u32();
@ -387,8 +396,6 @@ impl<'a> Iterator for FDE_Records<'a> {
            return None;
        }
        let fde_addr = self.reader.virt_addr;
        // Remove the length of the header and the content from the counter
        let length = match self.reader.read_u32() {
            // eh_frame with 0-length means the CIE is terminated
@ -399,14 +406,14 @@ impl<'a> Iterator for FDE_Records<'a> {
        // Remove the length of the header and the content from the counter
        self.available -= length + mem::size_of::<u32>();
-        let mut next_fde_reader = self.reader.clone();
+        let mut next_fde_reader = DwarfReader::from_reader(&self.reader, false);
        next_fde_reader.offset(length as u32);
        let cie_ptr = self.reader.read_u32();
        let next_val = if cie_ptr != 0 {
            let pc_begin = read_encoded_pointer_with_pc(&mut self.reader, self.pointer_encoding)
                .expect("Failed to read PC Begin");
-            Some((pc_begin as u32, fde_addr))
+            Some((pc_begin as u32, self.reader.virt_addr))
        } else {
            None
        };
@ -439,7 +446,9 @@ impl<'a> EH_Frame_Hdr<'a> {
        writer.write_u8(0x03); // fde_count_enc - 4-byte unsigned value
        writer.write_u8(0x3B); // table_enc - .eh_frame_hdr section-relative 4-byte signed value
-        let eh_frame_offset = eh_frame_addr.wrapping_sub(eh_frame_hdr_addr + writer.offset as u32);
+        let eh_frame_offset = eh_frame_addr.wrapping_sub(
            eh_frame_hdr_addr + writer.offset as u32 + ((mem::size_of::<u8>() as u32) * 4),
        );
        writer.write_u32(eh_frame_offset); // eh_frame_ptr
        writer.write_u32(0); // `fde_count`, will be written in finalize_fde
--- a/nac3ld/src/lib.rs
+++ b/nac3ld/src/lib.rs
@ -1,4 +1,10 @@
-#![deny(future_incompatible, let_underscore, nonstandard_style, clippy::all)]
+#![deny(
    future_incompatible,
    let_underscore,
    nonstandard_style,
    rust_2024_compatibility,
    clippy::all
 )]
 #![warn(clippy::pedantic)]
 #![allow(
    clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
@ -15,12 +21,13 @@
    clippy::wildcard_imports
 )]
 use std::{collections::HashMap, mem, ptr, slice, str};
 use byteorder::{ByteOrder, LittleEndian};
 use dwarf::*;
 use elf::*;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::{mem, ptr, slice, str};
 extern crate byteorder;
 use byteorder::{ByteOrder, LittleEndian};
 mod dwarf;
 mod elf;
--- a/Show More
+++ b/Show More
Author	SHA1	Message	Date
David Mak	ad94f59a9d	artiq: Remove all uses to gil-refs APIs	2024-09-13 11:18:09 +08:00
David Mak	246d2f6d05	artiq: Update to pyo3 v0.22 with gil-refs feature	2024-09-13 11:18:09 +08:00
David Mak	19d183ed84	artiq: Update to pyo3 v0.21 With the extensive use of as_gil_ref. Will have to refactor those away as well.	2024-09-13 11:18:06 +08:00