core/ndstrides: implement np_transpose() (no axes argument)

The IRRT implementation knows how to handle axes. But the argument is
not in NAC3 yet.

.pre-commit-config.yaml

@@ -8,17 +8,17 @@ repos:
     hooks:
       - id: nac3-cargo-fmt
         name: nac3 cargo format
-        entry: cargo
+        entry: nix
         language: system
         types: [file, rust]
         pass_filenames: false
         description: Runs cargo fmt on the codebase.
-        args: [fmt]
+        args: [develop, -c, cargo, fmt, --all]
       - id: nac3-cargo-clippy
         name: nac3 cargo clippy
-        entry: cargo
+        entry: nix
         language: system
         types: [file, rust]
         pass_filenames: false
         description: Runs cargo clippy on the codebase.
-        args: [clippy, --tests]
+        args: [develop, -c, cargo, clippy, --tests]

Cargo.lock

@@ -75,33 +75,33 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ascii-canvas"
-version = "3.0.0"
+version = "4.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8824ecca2e851cec16968d54a01dd372ef8f95b244fb84b84e70128be347c3c6"
+checksum = "ef1e3e699d84ab1b0911a1010c5c106aa34ae89aeac103be5ce0c3859db1e891"
 dependencies = [
  "term",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "autocfg"
-version = "1.3.0"
+version = "1.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0c4b4d0bd25bd0b74681c0ad21497610ce1b7c91b1022cd21c80c6fbdd9476b0"
+checksum = "ace50bade8e6234aa140d9a2f552bbee1db4d353f69b8217bc503490fc1a9f26"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bit-set"
-version = "0.5.3"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0700ddab506f33b20a03b13996eccd309a48e5ff77d0d95926aa0210fb4e95f1"
+checksum = "08807e080ed7f9d5433fa9b275196cfc35414f66a0c79d864dc51a0d825231a3"
 dependencies = [
  "bit-vec",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bit-vec"
-version = "0.6.3"
+version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "349f9b6a179ed607305526ca489b34ad0a41aed5f7980fa90eb03160b69598fb"
+checksum = "5e764a1d40d510daf35e07be9eb06e75770908c27d411ee6c92109c9840eaaf7"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bitflags"
@@ -109,6 +109,15 @@ version = "2.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "b048fb63fd8b5923fc5aa7b340d8e156aec7ec02f0c78fa8a6ddc2613f6f71de"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "block-buffer"
+version = "0.10.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "3078c7629b62d3f0439517fa394996acacc5cbc91c5a20d8c658e77abd503a71"
+dependencies = [
+ "generic-array",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "byteorder"
 version = "1.5.0"
@@ -117,9 +126,9 @@ checksum = "1fd0f2584146f6f2ef48085050886acf353beff7305ebd1ae69500e27c67f64b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "cc"
-version = "1.1.15"
+version = "1.1.24"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "57b6a275aa2903740dc87da01c62040406b8812552e97129a63ea8850a17c6e6"
+checksum = "812acba72f0a070b003d3697490d2b55b837230ae7c6c6497f05cc2ddbb8d938"
 dependencies = [
  "shlex",
 ]
@@ -132,9 +141,9 @@ checksum = "baf1de4339761588bc0619e3cbc0120ee582ebb74b53b4efbf79117bd2da40fd"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "clap"
-version = "4.5.16"
+version = "4.5.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ed6719fffa43d0d87e5fd8caeab59be1554fb028cd30edc88fc4369b17971019"
+checksum = "7be5744db7978a28d9df86a214130d106a89ce49644cbc4e3f0c22c3fba30615"
 dependencies = [
  "clap_builder",
  "clap_derive",
@@ -142,9 +151,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "clap_builder"
-version = "4.5.15"
+version = "4.5.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "216aec2b177652e3846684cbfe25c9964d18ec45234f0f5da5157b207ed1aab6"
+checksum = "a5fbc17d3ef8278f55b282b2a2e75ae6f6c7d4bb70ed3d0382375104bfafdb4b"
 dependencies = [
  "anstream",
  "anstyle",
@@ -154,14 +163,14 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "clap_derive"
-version = "4.5.13"
+version = "4.5.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "501d359d5f3dcaf6ecdeee48833ae73ec6e42723a1e52419c79abf9507eec0a0"
+checksum = "4ac6a0c7b1a9e9a5186361f67dfa1b88213572f427fb9ab038efb2bd8c582dab"
 dependencies = [
  "heck 0.5.0",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.76",
+ "syn 2.0.79",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -188,6 +197,15 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-sys 0.52.0",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "cpufeatures"
+version = "0.2.14"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "608697df725056feaccfa42cffdaeeec3fccc4ffc38358ecd19b243e716a78e0"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "crossbeam"
 version = "0.8.4"
@@ -245,30 +263,23 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "22ec99545bb0ed0ea7bb9b8e1e9122ea386ff8a48c0922e43f36d45ab09e0e80"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "crunchy"
+name = "crypto-common"
-version = "0.2.2"
+version = "0.1.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7a81dae078cea95a014a339291cec439d2f232ebe854a9d672b796c6afafa9b7"
+checksum = "1bfb12502f3fc46cca1bb51ac28df9d618d813cdc3d2f25b9fe775a34af26bb3"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "dirs-next"
-version = "2.0.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b98cf8ebf19c3d1b223e151f99a4f9f0690dca41414773390fc824184ac833e1"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
+ "generic-array",
- "dirs-sys-next",
+ "typenum",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "dirs-sys-next"
+name = "digest"
-version = "0.1.2"
+version = "0.10.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4ebda144c4fe02d1f7ea1a7d9641b6fc6b580adcfa024ae48797ecdeb6825b4d"
+checksum = "9ed9a281f7bc9b7576e61468ba615a66a5c8cfdff42420a70aa82701a3b1e292"
 dependencies = [
- "libc",
+ "block-buffer",
- "redox_users",
+ "crypto-common",
- "winapi",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -329,6 +340,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "byteorder",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "generic-array"
+version = "0.14.7"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "85649ca51fd72272d7821adaf274ad91c288277713d9c18820d8499a7ff69e9a"
+dependencies = [
+ "typenum",
+ "version_check",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "getopts"
 version = "0.2.21"
@@ -364,6 +385,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "ahash",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "hashbrown"
+version = "0.15.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1e087f84d4f86bf4b218b927129862374b72199ae7d8657835f1e89000eea4fb"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "heck"
 version = "0.4.1"
@@ -376,6 +403,15 @@ version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "2304e00983f87ffb38b55b444b5e3b60a884b5d30c0fca7d82fe33449bbe55ea"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "home"
+version = "0.5.9"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e3d1354bf6b7235cb4a0576c2619fd4ed18183f689b12b006a0ee7329eeff9a5"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-sys 0.52.0",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "indexmap"
 version = "1.9.3"
@@ -388,12 +424,12 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "indexmap"
-version = "2.4.0"
+version = "2.6.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "93ead53efc7ea8ed3cfb0c79fc8023fbb782a5432b52830b6518941cebe6505c"
+checksum = "707907fe3c25f5424cce2cb7e1cbcafee6bdbe735ca90ef77c29e84591e5b9da"
 dependencies = [
  "equivalent",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
+ "hashbrown 0.15.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -404,9 +440,9 @@ checksum = "b248f5224d1d606005e02c97f5aa4e88eeb230488bcc03bc9ca4d7991399f2b5"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "inkwell"
-version = "0.4.0"
+version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b597a7b2cdf279aeef6d7149071e35e4bc87c2cf05a5b7f2d731300bffe587ea"
+checksum = "40fb405537710d51f6bdbc8471365ddd4cd6d3a3c3ad6e0c8291691031ba94b2"
 dependencies = [
  "either",
  "inkwell_internals",
@@ -418,13 +454,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "inkwell_internals"
-version = "0.9.0"
+version = "0.10.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4fa4d8d74483041a882adaa9a29f633253a66dde85055f0495c121620ac484b2"
+checksum = "9dd28cfd4cfba665d47d31c08a6ba637eed16770abca2eccbbc3ca831fef1e44"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.76",
+ "syn 2.0.79",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -447,15 +483,6 @@ version = "1.70.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "7943c866cc5cd64cbc25b2e01621d07fa8eb2a1a23160ee81ce38704e97b8ecf"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "itertools"
-version = "0.11.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b1c173a5686ce8bfa551b3563d0c2170bf24ca44da99c7ca4bfdab5418c3fe57"
-dependencies = [
- "either",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "itertools"
 version = "0.13.0"
@@ -472,34 +499,44 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "49f1f14873335454500d59611f1cf4a4b0f786f9ac11f4312a78e4cf2566695b"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "lalrpop"
+name = "keccak"
-version = "0.20.2"
+version = "0.1.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "55cb077ad656299f160924eb2912aa147d7339ea7d69e1b5517326fdcec3c1ca"
+checksum = "ecc2af9a1119c51f12a14607e783cb977bde58bc069ff0c3da1095e635d70654"
+dependencies = [
+ "cpufeatures",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "lalrpop"
+version = "0.22.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "06093b57658c723a21da679530e061a8c25340fa5a6f98e313b542268c7e2a1f"
 dependencies = [
  "ascii-canvas",
  "bit-set",
  "ena",
- "itertools 0.11.0",
+ "itertools",
  "lalrpop-util",
  "petgraph",
  "pico-args",
  "regex",
  "regex-syntax",
+ "sha3",
  "string_cache",
  "term",
- "tiny-keccak",
  "unicode-xid",
  "walkdir",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "lalrpop-util"
-version = "0.20.2"
+version = "0.22.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "507460a910eb7b32ee961886ff48539633b788a36b65692b95f225b844c82553"
+checksum = "feee752d43abd0f4807a921958ab4131f692a44d4d599733d4419c5d586176ce"
 dependencies = [
  "regex-automata",
+ "rustversion",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -510,9 +547,9 @@ checksum = "bbd2bcb4c963f2ddae06a2efc7e9f3591312473c50c6685e1f298068316e66fe"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "libc"
-version = "0.2.158"
+version = "0.2.159"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d8adc4bb1803a324070e64a98ae98f38934d91957a99cfb3a43dcbc01bc56439"
+checksum = "561d97a539a36e26a9a5fad1ea11a3039a67714694aaa379433e580854bc3dc5"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "libloading"
@@ -524,16 +561,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-targets",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "libredox"
-version = "0.1.3"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c0ff37bd590ca25063e35af745c343cb7a0271906fb7b37e4813e8f79f00268d"
-dependencies = [
- "bitflags",
- "libc",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "linked-hash-map"
 version = "0.5.6"
@@ -594,11 +621,9 @@ dependencies = [
 name = "nac3artiq"
 version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
- "inkwell",
+ "itertools",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
  "nac3core",
  "nac3ld",
- "nac3parser",
  "parking_lot",
  "pyo3",
  "tempfile",
@@ -619,11 +644,11 @@ name = "nac3core"
 version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
  "crossbeam",
- "indexmap 2.4.0",
+ "indexmap 2.6.0",
  "indoc",
  "inkwell",
  "insta",
- "itertools 0.13.0",
+ "itertools",
  "nac3parser",
  "parking_lot",
  "rayon",
@@ -661,9 +686,7 @@ name = "nac3standalone"
 version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
  "clap",
- "inkwell",
  "nac3core",
- "nac3parser",
  "parking_lot",
 ]
 
@@ -675,9 +698,12 @@ checksum = "650eef8c711430f1a879fdd01d4745a7deea475becfb90269c06775983bbf086"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "once_cell"
-version = "1.19.0"
+version = "1.20.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3fdb12b2476b595f9358c5161aa467c2438859caa136dec86c26fdd2efe17b92"
+checksum = "82881c4be219ab5faaf2ad5e5e5ecdff8c66bd7402ca3160975c93b24961afd1"
+dependencies = [
+ "portable-atomic",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "parking_lot"
@@ -709,7 +735,7 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "b4c5cc86750666a3ed20bdaf5ca2a0344f9c67674cae0515bec2da16fbaa47db"
 dependencies = [
  "fixedbitset",
- "indexmap 2.4.0",
+ "indexmap 2.6.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -752,7 +778,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "phf_shared 0.11.2",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.76",
+ "syn 2.0.79",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -781,9 +807,9 @@ checksum = "5be167a7af36ee22fe3115051bc51f6e6c7054c9348e28deb4f49bd6f705a315"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "portable-atomic"
-version = "1.7.0"
+version = "1.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "da544ee218f0d287a911e9c99a39a8c9bc8fcad3cb8db5959940044ecfc67265"
+checksum = "cc9c68a3f6da06753e9335d63e27f6b9754dd1920d941135b7ea8224f141adb2"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ppv-lite86"
@@ -856,7 +882,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "pyo3-macros-backend",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.76",
+ "syn 2.0.79",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -869,7 +895,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "pyo3-build-config",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.76",
+ "syn 2.0.79",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -933,29 +959,18 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "redox_syscall"
-version = "0.5.3"
+version = "0.5.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2a908a6e00f1fdd0dfd9c0eb08ce85126f6d8bbda50017e74bc4a4b7d4a926a4"
+checksum = "9b6dfecf2c74bce2466cabf93f6664d6998a69eb21e39f4207930065b27b771f"
 dependencies = [
  "bitflags",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "redox_users"
-version = "0.4.6"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ba009ff324d1fc1b900bd1fdb31564febe58a8ccc8a6fdbb93b543d33b13ca43"
-dependencies = [
- "getrandom",
- "libredox",
- "thiserror",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "regex"
-version = "1.10.6"
+version = "1.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4219d74c6b67a3654a9fbebc4b419e22126d13d2f3c4a07ee0cb61ff79a79619"
+checksum = "38200e5ee88914975b69f657f0801b6f6dccafd44fd9326302a4aaeecfacb1d8"
 dependencies = [
  "aho-corasick",
  "memchr",
@@ -965,9 +980,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "regex-automata"
-version = "0.4.7"
+version = "0.4.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "38caf58cc5ef2fed281f89292ef23f6365465ed9a41b7a7754eb4e26496c92df"
+checksum = "368758f23274712b504848e9d5a6f010445cc8b87a7cdb4d7cbee666c1288da3"
 dependencies = [
  "aho-corasick",
  "memchr",
@@ -976,9 +991,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "regex-syntax"
-version = "0.8.4"
+version = "0.8.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7a66a03ae7c801facd77a29370b4faec201768915ac14a721ba36f20bc9c209b"
+checksum = "2b15c43186be67a4fd63bee50d0303afffcef381492ebe2c5d87f324e1b8815c"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "runkernel"
@@ -989,9 +1004,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustix"
-version = "0.38.35"
+version = "0.38.37"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a85d50532239da68e9addb745ba38ff4612a242c1c7ceea689c4bc7c2f43c36f"
+checksum = "8acb788b847c24f28525660c4d7758620a7210875711f79e7f663cc152726811"
 dependencies = [
  "bitflags",
  "errno",
@@ -1035,29 +1050,29 @@ checksum = "61697e0a1c7e512e84a621326239844a24d8207b4669b41bc18b32ea5cbf988b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde"
-version = "1.0.209"
+version = "1.0.210"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "99fce0ffe7310761ca6bf9faf5115afbc19688edd00171d81b1bb1b116c63e09"
+checksum = "c8e3592472072e6e22e0a54d5904d9febf8508f65fb8552499a1abc7d1078c3a"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_derive"
-version = "1.0.209"
+version = "1.0.210"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a5831b979fd7b5439637af1752d535ff49f4860c0f341d1baeb6faf0f4242170"
+checksum = "243902eda00fad750862fc144cea25caca5e20d615af0a81bee94ca738f1df1f"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.76",
+ "syn 2.0.79",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_json"
-version = "1.0.127"
+version = "1.0.128"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8043c06d9f82bd7271361ed64f415fe5e12a77fdb52e573e7f06a516dea329ad"
+checksum = "6ff5456707a1de34e7e37f2a6fd3d3f808c318259cbd01ab6377795054b483d8"
 dependencies = [
  "itoa",
  "memchr",
@@ -1077,6 +1092,16 @@ dependencies = [
  "yaml-rust",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "sha3"
+version = "0.10.8"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "75872d278a8f37ef87fa0ddbda7802605cb18344497949862c0d4dcb291eba60"
+dependencies = [
+ "digest",
+ "keccak",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "shlex"
 version = "1.3.0"
@@ -1147,7 +1172,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "rustversion",
- "syn 2.0.76",
+ "syn 2.0.79",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1163,9 +1188,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "syn"
-version = "2.0.76"
+version = "2.0.79"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "578e081a14e0cefc3279b0472138c513f37b41a08d5a3cca9b6e4e8ceb6cd525"
+checksum = "89132cd0bf050864e1d38dc3bbc07a0eb8e7530af26344d3d2bbbef83499f590"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
@@ -1180,9 +1205,9 @@ checksum = "61c41af27dd6d1e27b1b16b489db798443478cef1f06a660c96db617ba5de3b1"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tempfile"
-version = "3.12.0"
+version = "3.13.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "04cbcdd0c794ebb0d4cf35e88edd2f7d2c4c3e9a5a6dab322839b321c6a87a64"
+checksum = "f0f2c9fc62d0beef6951ccffd757e241266a2c833136efbe35af6cd2567dca5b"
 dependencies = [
  "cfg-if",
  "fastrand",
@@ -1193,13 +1218,12 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "term"
-version = "0.7.0"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c59df8ac95d96ff9bede18eb7300b0fda5e5d8d90960e76f8e14ae765eedbf1f"
+checksum = "4df4175de05129f31b80458c6df371a15e7fc3fd367272e6bf938e5c351c7ea0"
 dependencies = [
- "dirs-next",
+ "home",
- "rustversion",
+ "windows-sys 0.52.0",
- "winapi",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1217,32 +1241,29 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "thiserror"
-version = "1.0.63"
+version = "1.0.64"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c0342370b38b6a11b6cc11d6a805569958d54cfa061a29969c3b5ce2ea405724"
+checksum = "d50af8abc119fb8bb6dbabcfa89656f46f84aa0ac7688088608076ad2b459a84"
 dependencies = [
  "thiserror-impl",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "thiserror-impl"
-version = "1.0.63"
+version = "1.0.64"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a4558b58466b9ad7ca0f102865eccc95938dca1a74a856f2b57b6629050da261"
+checksum = "08904e7672f5eb876eaaf87e0ce17857500934f4981c4a0ab2b4aa98baac7fc3"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.76",
+ "syn 2.0.79",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tiny-keccak"
+name = "typenum"
-version = "2.0.2"
+version = "1.17.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2c9d3793400a45f954c52e73d068316d76b6f4e36977e3fcebb13a2721e80237"
+checksum = "42ff0bf0c66b8238c6f3b578df37d0b7848e55df8577b3f74f92a69acceeb825"
-dependencies = [
- "crunchy",
-]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unic-char-property"
@@ -1298,27 +1319,27 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-ident"
-version = "1.0.12"
+version = "1.0.13"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3354b9ac3fae1ff6755cb6db53683adb661634f67557942dea4facebec0fee4b"
+checksum = "e91b56cd4cadaeb79bbf1a5645f6b4f8dc5bde8834ad5894a8db35fda9efa1fe"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-width"
-version = "0.1.13"
+version = "0.1.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0336d538f7abc86d282a4189614dfaa90810dfc2c6f6427eaf88e16311dd225d"
+checksum = "7dd6e30e90baa6f72411720665d41d89b9a3d039dc45b8faea1ddd07f617f6af"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode-xid"
-version = "0.2.5"
+version = "0.2.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "229730647fbc343e3a80e463c1db7f78f3855d3f3739bee0dda773c9a037c90a"
+checksum = "ebc1c04c71510c7f702b52b7c350734c9ff1295c464a03335b00bb84fc54f853"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode_names2"
-version = "1.2.2"
+version = "1.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "addeebf294df7922a1164f729fb27ebbbcea99cc32b3bf08afab62757f707677"
+checksum = "d1673eca9782c84de5f81b82e4109dcfb3611c8ba0d52930ec4a9478f547b2dd"
 dependencies = [
  "phf",
  "unicode_names2_generator",
@@ -1326,9 +1347,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "unicode_names2_generator"
-version = "1.2.2"
+version = "1.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f444b8bba042fe3c1251ffaca35c603f2dc2ccc08d595c65a8c4f76f3e8426c0"
+checksum = "b91e5b84611016120197efd7dc93ef76774f4e084cd73c9fb3ea4a86c570c56e"
 dependencies = [
  "getopts",
  "log",
@@ -1370,22 +1391,6 @@ version = "0.11.0+wasi-snapshot-preview1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9c8d87e72b64a3b4db28d11ce29237c246188f4f51057d65a7eab63b7987e423"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "winapi"
-version = "0.3.9"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5c839a674fcd7a98952e593242ea400abe93992746761e38641405d28b00f419"
-dependencies = [
- "winapi-i686-pc-windows-gnu",
- "winapi-x86_64-pc-windows-gnu",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "winapi-i686-pc-windows-gnu"
-version = "0.4.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ac3b87c63620426dd9b991e5ce0329eff545bccbbb34f3be09ff6fb6ab51b7b6"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "winapi-util"
 version = "0.1.9"
@@ -1395,12 +1400,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "windows-sys 0.59.0",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "winapi-x86_64-pc-windows-gnu"
-version = "0.4.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "712e227841d057c1ee1cd2fb22fa7e5a5461ae8e48fa2ca79ec42cfc1931183f"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "windows-sys"
 version = "0.52.0"
@@ -1510,5 +1509,5 @@ checksum = "fa4f8080344d4671fb4e831a13ad1e68092748387dfc4f55e356242fae12ce3e"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.76",
+ "syn 2.0.79",
 ]

flake.lock

@@ -2,11 +2,11 @@
   "nodes": {
     "nixpkgs": {
       "locked": {
-        "lastModified": 1723637854,
+        "lastModified": 1727348695,
-        "narHash": "sha256-med8+5DSWa2UnOqtdICndjDAEjxr5D7zaIiK4pn0Q7c=",
+        "narHash": "sha256-J+PeFKSDV+pHL7ukkfpVzCOO7mBSrrpJ3svwBFABbhI=",
         "owner": "NixOS",
         "repo": "nixpkgs",
-        "rev": "c3aa7b8938b17aebd2deecf7be0636000d62a2b9",
+        "rev": "1925c603f17fc89f4c8f6bf6f631a802ad85d784",
         "type": "github"
       },
       "original": {

nac3artiq/Cargo.toml

@@ -12,16 +12,10 @@ crate-type = ["cdylib"]
 itertools = "0.13"
 pyo3 = { version = "0.21", features = ["extension-module", "gil-refs"] }
 parking_lot = "0.12"
-tempfile = "3.10"
+tempfile = "3.13"
-nac3parser = { path = "../nac3parser" }
 nac3core = { path = "../nac3core" }
 nac3ld = { path = "../nac3ld" }
 
-[dependencies.inkwell]
-version = "0.4"
-default-features = false
-features = ["llvm14-0", "target-x86", "target-arm", "target-riscv", "no-libffi-linking"]
-
 [features]
 init-llvm-profile = []
 no-escape-analysis = ["nac3core/no-escape-analysis"]

nac3artiq/demo/min_artiq.py

@@ -112,10 +112,15 @@ def extern(function):
     register_function(function)
     return function
 
-def rpc(function):
+
-    """Decorates a function declaration defined by the core device runtime."""
+def rpc(arg=None, flags={}):
-    register_function(function)
+    """Decorates a function or method to be executed on the host interpreter."""
-    return function
+    if arg is None:
+        def inner_decorator(function):
+            return rpc(function, flags)
+        return inner_decorator
+    register_function(arg)
+    return arg
 
 def kernel(function_or_method):
     """Decorates a function or method to be executed on the core device."""

nac3artiq/src/codegen.rs

@@ -1,3 +1,17 @@
+use std::{
+    collections::{hash_map::DefaultHasher, HashMap},
+    hash::{Hash, Hasher},
+    iter::once,
+    mem,
+    sync::Arc,
+};
+
+use itertools::Itertools;
+use pyo3::{
+    types::{PyDict, PyList},
+    PyObject, PyResult, Python,
+};
+
 use nac3core::{
     codegen::{
         classes::{
@@ -10,38 +24,21 @@ use nac3core::{
         stmt::{gen_block, gen_for_callback_incrementing, gen_if_callback, gen_with},
         CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
     },
+    inkwell::{
+        context::Context,
+        module::Linkage,
+        types::{BasicType, IntType},
+        values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue},
+        AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
+    },
+    nac3parser::ast::{Expr, ExprKind, Located, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef},
     symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
     toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys, DefinitionId, GenCall},
     typecheck::typedef::{iter_type_vars, FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, VarMap},
 };
 
-use nac3parser::ast::{Expr, ExprKind, Located, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef};
-
-use inkwell::{
-    context::Context,
-    module::Linkage,
-    types::{BasicType, IntType},
-    values::{BasicValueEnum, PointerValue, StructValue},
-    AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
-};
-
-use pyo3::{
-    types::{PyDict, PyList},
-    PyObject, PyResult, Python,
-};
-
 use crate::{symbol_resolver::InnerResolver, timeline::TimeFns};
 
-use inkwell::values::IntValue;
-use itertools::Itertools;
-use std::{
-    collections::{hash_map::DefaultHasher, HashMap},
-    hash::{Hash, Hasher},
-    iter::once,
-    mem,
-    sync::Arc,
-};
-
 /// The parallelism mode within a block.
 #[derive(Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
 enum ParallelMode {
@@ -461,8 +458,8 @@ fn format_rpc_arg<'ctx>(
             let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
 
             let (elem_ty, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, arg_ty);
-            let llvm_arg_ty =
+            let llvm_elem_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, elem_ty);
-                NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, elem_ty));
+            let llvm_arg_ty = NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx.ctx, llvm_elem_ty);
             let llvm_arg = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(arg.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
 
             let llvm_usize_sizeof = ctx
@@ -472,7 +469,7 @@ fn format_rpc_arg<'ctx>(
             let llvm_pdata_sizeof = ctx
                 .builder
                 .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(
-                    llvm_arg_ty.element_type().ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).size_of(),
+                    llvm_elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).size_of(),
                     llvm_usize,
                     "",
                 )
@@ -515,7 +512,7 @@ fn format_rpc_arg<'ctx>(
             ctx.builder.build_store(arg_slot, arg).unwrap();
 
             ctx.builder
-                .build_bitcast(arg_slot, llvm_pi8, "rpc.arg")
+                .build_bit_cast(arg_slot, llvm_pi8, "rpc.arg")
                 .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
                 .unwrap()
         }
@@ -630,7 +627,7 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
             let llvm_pdata_sizeof = ctx
                 .builder
                 .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(
-                    llvm_ret_ty.element_type().size_of().unwrap(),
+                    llvm_elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).size_of(),
                     llvm_usize,
                     "",
                 )
@@ -662,7 +659,7 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
                 .unwrap();
             let buffer = ctx
                 .builder
-                .build_bitcast(buffer, llvm_pi8, "")
+                .build_bit_cast(buffer, llvm_pi8, "")
                 .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
                 .unwrap();
             let buffer = ArraySliceValue::from_ptr_val(buffer, buffer_size, None);
@@ -785,7 +782,7 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
 
         _ => {
             let slot = ctx.builder.build_alloca(llvm_ret_ty, "rpc.ret.slot").unwrap();
-            let slotgen = ctx.builder.build_bitcast(slot, llvm_pi8, "rpc.ret.ptr").unwrap();
+            let slotgen = ctx.builder.build_bit_cast(slot, llvm_pi8, "rpc.ret.ptr").unwrap();
             ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(head_bb).unwrap();
             ctx.builder.position_at_end(head_bb);
 
@@ -806,7 +803,7 @@ fn format_rpc_ret<'ctx>(
             let alloc_ptr =
                 ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(llvm_pi8, alloc_size, "rpc.alloc").unwrap();
             let alloc_ptr =
-                ctx.builder.build_bitcast(alloc_ptr, llvm_pi8, "rpc.alloc.ptr").unwrap();
+                ctx.builder.build_bit_cast(alloc_ptr, llvm_pi8, "rpc.alloc.ptr").unwrap();
             phi.add_incoming(&[(&alloc_ptr, alloc_bb)]);
             ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(head_bb).unwrap();
 
@@ -824,6 +821,7 @@ fn rpc_codegen_callback_fn<'ctx>(
     fun: (&FunSignature, DefinitionId),
     args: Vec<(Option<StrRef>, ValueEnum<'ctx>)>,
     generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
+    is_async: bool,
 ) -> Result<Option<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>>, String> {
     let int8 = ctx.ctx.i8_type();
     let int32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
@@ -932,6 +930,29 @@ fn rpc_codegen_callback_fn<'ctx>(
     }
 
     // call
+    if is_async {
+        let rpc_send_async = ctx.module.get_function("rpc_send_async").unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            ctx.module.add_function(
+                "rpc_send_async",
+                ctx.ctx.void_type().fn_type(
+                    &[
+                        int32.into(),
+                        tag_ptr_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(),
+                        ptr_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()).into(),
+                    ],
+                    false,
+                ),
+                None,
+            )
+        });
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_call(
+                rpc_send_async,
+                &[service_id.into(), tag_ptr.into(), args_ptr.into()],
+                "rpc.send",
+            )
+            .unwrap();
+    } else {
         let rpc_send = ctx.module.get_function("rpc_send").unwrap_or_else(|| {
             ctx.module.add_function(
                 "rpc_send",
@@ -949,10 +970,15 @@ fn rpc_codegen_callback_fn<'ctx>(
         ctx.builder
             .build_call(rpc_send, &[service_id.into(), tag_ptr.into(), args_ptr.into()], "rpc.send")
             .unwrap();
+    }
 
     // reclaim stack space used by arguments
     call_stackrestore(ctx, stackptr);
 
+    if is_async {
+        // async RPCs do not return any values
+        Ok(None)
+    } else {
         let result = format_rpc_ret(generator, ctx, fun.0.ret);
 
         if !result.is_some_and(|res| res.get_type().is_pointer_type()) {
@@ -962,6 +988,7 @@ fn rpc_codegen_callback_fn<'ctx>(
 
         Ok(result)
     }
+}
 
 pub fn attributes_writeback(
     ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'_, '_>,
@@ -1055,7 +1082,7 @@ pub fn attributes_writeback(
         let args: Vec<_> =
             values.into_iter().map(|(_, val)| (None, ValueEnum::Dynamic(val))).collect();
         if let Err(e) =
-            rpc_codegen_callback_fn(ctx, None, (&fun, PrimDef::Int32.id()), args, generator)
+            rpc_codegen_callback_fn(ctx, None, (&fun, PrimDef::Int32.id()), args, generator, false)
         {
             return Ok(Err(e));
         }
@@ -1065,9 +1092,9 @@ pub fn attributes_writeback(
     Ok(())
 }
 
-pub fn rpc_codegen_callback() -> Arc<GenCall> {
+pub fn rpc_codegen_callback(is_async: bool) -> Arc<GenCall> {
-    Arc::new(GenCall::new(Box::new(|ctx, obj, fun, args, generator| {
+    Arc::new(GenCall::new(Box::new(move |ctx, obj, fun, args, generator| {
-        rpc_codegen_callback_fn(ctx, obj, fun, args, generator)
+        rpc_codegen_callback_fn(ctx, obj, fun, args, generator, is_async)
     })))
 }
 

nac3artiq/src/lib.rs

@@ -16,14 +16,30 @@
     clippy::wildcard_imports
 )]
 
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::{
-use std::fs;
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-use std::io::Write;
+    fs,
-use std::process::Command;
+    io::Write,
-use std::rc::Rc;
+    process::Command,
-use std::sync::Arc;
+    rc::Rc,
+    sync::Arc,
+};
 
-use inkwell::{
+use itertools::Itertools;
+use parking_lot::{Mutex, RwLock};
+use pyo3::{
+    create_exception, exceptions,
+    prelude::*,
+    types::{PyBytes, PyDict, PySet},
+};
+use tempfile::{self, TempDir};
+
+use nac3core::{
+    codegen::{
+        concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore, gen_func_impl, irrt::load_irrt, CodeGenLLVMOptions,
+        CodeGenTargetMachineOptions, CodeGenTask, WithCall, WorkerRegistry,
+    },
+    inkwell::{
         context::Context,
         memory_buffer::MemoryBuffer,
         module::{Linkage, Module},
@@ -31,33 +47,22 @@ use inkwell::{
         support::is_multithreaded,
         targets::*,
         OptimizationLevel,
-};
+    },
-use itertools::Itertools;
+    nac3parser::{
-use nac3core::codegen::{gen_func_impl, CodeGenLLVMOptions, CodeGenTargetMachineOptions};
+        ast::{Constant, ExprKind, Located, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef},
-use nac3core::toplevel::builtins::get_exn_constructor;
-use nac3core::typecheck::typedef::{into_var_map, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap};
-use nac3parser::{
-    ast::{ExprKind, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef},
         parser::parse_program,
-};
+    },
-use pyo3::create_exception;
-use pyo3::prelude::*;
-use pyo3::{exceptions, types::PyBytes, types::PyDict, types::PySet};
-
-use parking_lot::{Mutex, RwLock};
-
-use nac3core::{
-    codegen::irrt::load_irrt,
-    codegen::{concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore, CodeGenTask, WithCall, WorkerRegistry},
     symbol_resolver::SymbolResolver,
     toplevel::{
+        builtins::get_exn_constructor,
         composer::{BuiltinFuncCreator, BuiltinFuncSpec, ComposerConfig, TopLevelComposer},
         DefinitionId, GenCall, TopLevelDef,
     },
-    typecheck::typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg},
+    typecheck::{
-    typecheck::{type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore, typedef::Type},
+        type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore,
+        typedef::{into_var_map, FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
+    },
 };
-
 use nac3ld::Linker;
 
 use crate::{
@@ -65,15 +70,13 @@ use crate::{
         attributes_writeback, gen_core_log, gen_rtio_log, rpc_codegen_callback, ArtiqCodeGenerator,
     },
     symbol_resolver::{DeferredEvaluationStore, InnerResolver, PythonHelper, Resolver},
+    timeline::TimeFns,
 };
-use tempfile::{self, TempDir};
 
 mod codegen;
 mod symbol_resolver;
 mod timeline;
 
-use timeline::TimeFns;
-
 #[derive(PartialEq, Clone, Copy)]
 enum Isa {
     Host,
@@ -194,10 +197,8 @@ impl Nac3 {
                     body.retain(|stmt| {
                         if let StmtKind::FunctionDef { ref decorator_list, .. } = stmt.node {
                             decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
-                                if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = decorator.node {
+                                if let Some(id) = decorator_id_string(decorator) {
-                                    id.to_string() == "kernel"
+                                    id == "kernel" || id == "portable" || id == "rpc"
-                                        || id.to_string() == "portable"
-                                        || id.to_string() == "rpc"
                                 } else {
                                     false
                                 }
@@ -210,9 +211,8 @@ impl Nac3 {
                 }
                 StmtKind::FunctionDef { ref decorator_list, .. } => {
                     decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
-                        if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = decorator.node {
+                        if let Some(id) = decorator_id_string(decorator) {
-                            let id = id.to_string();
+                            id == "extern" || id == "kernel" || id == "portable" || id == "rpc"
-                            id == "extern" || id == "portable" || id == "kernel" || id == "rpc"
                         } else {
                             false
                         }
@@ -478,9 +478,25 @@ impl Nac3 {
 
             match &stmt.node {
                 StmtKind::FunctionDef { decorator_list, .. } => {
-                    if decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| matches!(decorator.node, ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == "rpc".into())) {
+                    if decorator_list
-                        store_fun.call1(py, (def_id.0.into_py(py), module.getattr(py, name.to_string().as_str()).unwrap())).unwrap();
+                        .iter()
-                        rpc_ids.push((None, def_id));
+                        .any(|decorator| decorator_id_string(decorator) == Some("rpc".to_string()))
+                    {
+                        store_fun
+                            .call1(
+                                py,
+                                (
+                                    def_id.0.into_py(py),
+                                    module.getattr(py, name.to_string().as_str()).unwrap(),
+                                ),
+                            )
+                            .unwrap();
+                        let is_async = decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
+                            decorator_get_flags(decorator)
+                                .iter()
+                                .any(|constant| *constant == Constant::Str("async".into()))
+                        });
+                        rpc_ids.push((None, def_id, is_async));
                     }
                 }
                 StmtKind::ClassDef { name, body, .. } => {
@@ -488,19 +504,26 @@ impl Nac3 {
                     let class_obj = module.getattr(py, class_name.as_str()).unwrap();
                     for stmt in body {
                         if let StmtKind::FunctionDef { name, decorator_list, .. } = &stmt.node {
-                            if decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| matches!(decorator.node, ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == "rpc".into())) {
+                            if decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
+                                decorator_id_string(decorator) == Some("rpc".to_string())
+                            }) {
+                                let is_async = decorator_list.iter().any(|decorator| {
+                                    decorator_get_flags(decorator)
+                                        .iter()
+                                        .any(|constant| *constant == Constant::Str("async".into()))
+                                });
                                 if name == &"__init__".into() {
                                     return Err(CompileError::new_err(format!(
                                         "compilation failed\n----------\nThe constructor of class {} should not be decorated with rpc decorator (at {})",
                                         class_name, stmt.location
                                     )));
                                 }
-                                rpc_ids.push((Some((class_obj.clone(), *name)), def_id));
+                                rpc_ids.push((Some((class_obj.clone(), *name)), def_id, is_async));
                             }
                         }
                     }
                 }
-                _ => ()
+                _ => (),
             }
 
             let id = *name_to_pyid.get(&name).unwrap();
@@ -556,7 +579,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
             .unwrap();
 
         // Process IRRT
-        let context = inkwell::context::Context::create();
+        let context = Context::create();
         let irrt = load_irrt(&context, resolver.as_ref());
 
         let fun_signature =
@@ -596,13 +619,12 @@ impl Nac3 {
         let top_level = Arc::new(composer.make_top_level_context());
 
         {
-            let rpc_codegen = rpc_codegen_callback();
             let defs = top_level.definitions.read();
-            for (class_data, id) in &rpc_ids {
+            for (class_data, id, is_async) in &rpc_ids {
                 let mut def = defs[id.0].write();
                 match &mut *def {
                     TopLevelDef::Function { codegen_callback, .. } => {
-                        *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen.clone());
+                        *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen_callback(*is_async));
                     }
                     TopLevelDef::Class { methods, .. } => {
                         let (class_def, method_name) = class_data.as_ref().unwrap();
@@ -613,7 +635,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
                             if let TopLevelDef::Function { codegen_callback, .. } =
                                 &mut *defs[id.0].write()
                             {
-                                *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen.clone());
+                                *codegen_callback = Some(rpc_codegen_callback(*is_async));
                                 store_fun
                                     .call1(
                                         py,
@@ -628,6 +650,11 @@ impl Nac3 {
                             }
                         }
                     }
+                    TopLevelDef::Variable { .. } => {
+                        return Err(CompileError::new_err(String::from(
+                            "Unsupported @rpc annotation on global variable",
+                        )))
+                    }
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -687,7 +714,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
             let buffer = buffer.as_slice().into();
             membuffer.lock().push(buffer);
         })));
-        let size_t = Context::create()
+        let size_t = context
             .ptr_sized_int_type(&self.get_llvm_target_machine().get_target_data(), None)
             .get_bit_width();
         let num_threads = if is_multithreaded() { 4 } else { 1 };
@@ -706,7 +733,7 @@ impl Nac3 {
 
             let mut generator =
                 ArtiqCodeGenerator::new("attributes_writeback".to_string(), size_t, self.time_fns);
-            let context = inkwell::context::Context::create();
+            let context = Context::create();
             let module = context.create_module("attributes_writeback");
             let target_machine = self.llvm_options.create_target_machine().unwrap();
             module.set_data_layout(&target_machine.get_target_data().get_data_layout());
@@ -844,6 +871,41 @@ impl Nac3 {
     }
 }
 
+/// Retrieves the Name.id from a decorator, supports decorators with arguments.
+fn decorator_id_string(decorator: &Located<ExprKind>) -> Option<String> {
+    if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = decorator.node {
+        // Bare decorator
+        return Some(id.to_string());
+    } else if let ExprKind::Call { func, .. } = &decorator.node {
+        // Decorators that are calls (e.g. "@rpc()") have Call for the node,
+        // need to extract the id from within.
+        if let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = func.node {
+            return Some(id.to_string());
+        }
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+/// Retrieves flags from a decorator, if any.
+fn decorator_get_flags(decorator: &Located<ExprKind>) -> Vec<Constant> {
+    let mut flags = vec![];
+    if let ExprKind::Call { keywords, .. } = &decorator.node {
+        for keyword in keywords {
+            if keyword.node.arg != Some("flags".into()) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if let ExprKind::Set { elts } = &keyword.node.value.node {
+                for elt in elts {
+                    if let ExprKind::Constant { value, .. } = &elt.node {
+                        flags.push(value.clone());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    flags
+}
+
 fn link_with_lld(elf_filename: String, obj_filename: String) -> PyResult<()> {
     let linker_args = vec![
         "-shared".to_string(),

nac3artiq/src/symbol_resolver.rs

@@ -1,16 +1,30 @@
-use crate::PrimitivePythonId;
+use std::{
-use inkwell::{
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-    module::Linkage,
+    sync::{
-    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering::Relaxed},
-    values::BasicValueEnum,
+        Arc,
-    AddressSpace,
+    },
 };
+
 use itertools::Itertools;
+use parking_lot::RwLock;
+use pyo3::{
+    types::{PyDict, PyTuple},
+    PyAny, PyObject, PyResult, Python,
+};
+
 use nac3core::{
     codegen::{
         classes::{NDArrayType, ProxyType},
         CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
     },
+    inkwell::{
+        module::Linkage,
+        types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
+        values::BasicValueEnum,
+        AddressSpace,
+    },
+    nac3parser::ast::{self, StrRef},
     symbol_resolver::{StaticValue, SymbolResolver, SymbolValue, ValueEnum},
     toplevel::{
         helper::PrimDef,
@@ -22,19 +36,8 @@ use nac3core::{
         typedef::{into_var_map, iter_type_vars, Type, TypeEnum, TypeVar, Unifier, VarMap},
     },
 };
-use nac3parser::ast::{self, StrRef};
+
-use parking_lot::RwLock;
+use crate::PrimitivePythonId;
-use pyo3::{
-    types::{PyDict, PyTuple},
-    PyAny, PyObject, PyResult, Python,
-};
-use std::{
-    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-    sync::{
-        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering::Relaxed},
-        Arc,
-    },
-};
 
 pub enum PrimitiveValue {
     I32(i32),
@@ -1467,6 +1470,7 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
         &self,
         id: StrRef,
         _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
     ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>> {
         let sym_value = {
             let id_to_val = self.0.id_to_pyval.read();

nac3artiq/src/timeline.rs

@@ -1,9 +1,12 @@
-use inkwell::{
+use itertools::Either;
+
+use nac3core::{
+    codegen::CodeGenContext,
+    inkwell::{
         values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue},
         AddressSpace, AtomicOrdering,
+    },
 };
-use itertools::Either;
-use nac3core::codegen::CodeGenContext;
 
 /// Functions for manipulating the timeline.
 pub trait TimeFns {
@@ -31,7 +34,7 @@ impl TimeFns for NowPinningTimeFns64 {
             .unwrap_or_else(|| ctx.module.add_global(i64_type, None, "now"));
         let now_hiptr = ctx
             .builder
-            .build_bitcast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
+            .build_bit_cast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
             .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -80,7 +83,7 @@ impl TimeFns for NowPinningTimeFns64 {
             .unwrap_or_else(|| ctx.module.add_global(i64_type, None, "now"));
         let now_hiptr = ctx
             .builder
-            .build_bitcast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
+            .build_bit_cast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
             .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -109,7 +112,7 @@ impl TimeFns for NowPinningTimeFns64 {
             .unwrap_or_else(|| ctx.module.add_global(i64_type, None, "now"));
         let now_hiptr = ctx
             .builder
-            .build_bitcast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
+            .build_bit_cast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
             .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -207,7 +210,7 @@ impl TimeFns for NowPinningTimeFns {
             .unwrap_or_else(|| ctx.module.add_global(i64_type, None, "now"));
         let now_hiptr = ctx
             .builder
-            .build_bitcast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
+            .build_bit_cast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
             .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
             .unwrap();
 
@@ -258,7 +261,7 @@ impl TimeFns for NowPinningTimeFns {
         let time_lo = ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(time, i32_type, "time.lo").unwrap();
         let now_hiptr = ctx
             .builder
-            .build_bitcast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
+            .build_bit_cast(now, i32_type.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "now.hi.addr")
             .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
             .unwrap();
 

nac3core/Cargo.toml

@@ -10,17 +10,17 @@ no-escape-analysis = []
 [dependencies]
 itertools = "0.13"
 crossbeam = "0.8"
-indexmap = "2.2"
+indexmap = "2.6"
 parking_lot = "0.12"
-rayon = "1.8"
+rayon = "1.10"
 nac3parser = { path = "../nac3parser" }
 strum = "0.26"
 strum_macros = "0.26"
 
 [dependencies.inkwell]
-version = "0.4"
+version = "0.5"
 default-features = false
-features = ["llvm14-0", "target-x86", "target-arm", "target-riscv", "no-libffi-linking"]
+features = ["llvm14-0-prefer-dynamic", "target-x86", "target-arm", "target-riscv", "no-libffi-linking"]
 
 [dev-dependencies]
 test-case = "1.2.0"

nac3core/build.rs

@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-use regex::Regex;
 use std::{
     env,
     fs::File,
@@ -7,6 +6,8 @@ use std::{
     process::{Command, Stdio},
 };
 
+use regex::Regex;
+
 fn main() {
     let out_dir = env::var("OUT_DIR").unwrap();
     let out_dir = Path::new(&out_dir);

nac3core/irrt/irrt.cpp

@@ -3,4 +3,13 @@
 #include "irrt/list.hpp"
 #include "irrt/math.hpp"
 #include "irrt/ndarray.hpp"
+#include "irrt/range.hpp"
 #include "irrt/slice.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/iter.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/indexing.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/array.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/reshape.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/broadcast.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/transpose.hpp"

nac3core/irrt/irrt/exception.hpp

@@ -55,11 +55,14 @@ void _raise_exception_helper(ExceptionId id,
                              int64_t param2) {
     Exception<SizeT> e = {
         .id = id,
-        .filename = {.base = reinterpret_cast<const uint8_t*>(filename), .len = __builtin_strlen(filename)},
+        .filename = {.base = reinterpret_cast<uint8_t*>(const_cast<char*>(filename)),
+                     .len = static_cast<int32_t>(__builtin_strlen(filename))},
         .line = line,
         .column = 0,
-        .function = {.base = reinterpret_cast<const uint8_t*>(function), .len = __builtin_strlen(function)},
+        .function = {.base = reinterpret_cast<uint8_t*>(const_cast<char*>(function)),
-        .msg = {.base = reinterpret_cast<const uint8_t*>(msg), .len = __builtin_strlen(msg)},
+                     .len = static_cast<int32_t>(__builtin_strlen(function))},
+        .msg = {.base = reinterpret_cast<uint8_t*>(const_cast<char*>(msg)),
+                .len = static_cast<int32_t>(__builtin_strlen(msg))},
     };
     e.params[0] = param0;
     e.params[1] = param1;

nac3core/irrt/irrt/int_types.hpp

@@ -1,13 +1,22 @@
 #pragma once
 
+#if __STDC_VERSION__ >= 202000
 using int8_t = _BitInt(8);
 using uint8_t = unsigned _BitInt(8);
 using int32_t = _BitInt(32);
 using uint32_t = unsigned _BitInt(32);
 using int64_t = _BitInt(64);
 using uint64_t = unsigned _BitInt(64);
+#else
+using int8_t = _ExtInt(8);
+using uint8_t = unsigned _ExtInt(8);
+using int32_t = _ExtInt(32);
+using uint32_t = unsigned _ExtInt(32);
+using int64_t = _ExtInt(64);
+using uint64_t = unsigned _ExtInt(64);
+#endif
 
 // NDArray indices are always `uint32_t`.
-using NDIndex = uint32_t;
+using NDIndexInt = uint32_t;
 // The type of an index or a value describing the length of a range/slice is always `int32_t`.
 using SliceIndex = int32_t;

nac3core/irrt/irrt/list.hpp

@@ -2,6 +2,21 @@
 
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
 #include "irrt/math_util.hpp"
+#include "irrt/slice.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+/**
+ * @brief A list in NAC3.
+ *
+ * The `items` field is opaque. You must rely on external contexts to
+ * know how to interpret it.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+struct List {
+    uint8_t* items;
+    SizeT len;
+};
+}  // namespace
 
 extern "C" {
 // Handle list assignment and dropping part of the list when

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray.hpp

@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@
 
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
 
+// TODO: To be deleted since NDArray with strides is done.
+
 namespace {
 template<typename SizeT>
 SizeT __nac3_ndarray_calc_size_impl(const SizeT* list_data, SizeT list_len, SizeT begin_idx, SizeT end_idx) {
@@ -17,7 +19,7 @@ SizeT __nac3_ndarray_calc_size_impl(const SizeT* list_data, SizeT list_len, Size
 }
 
 template<typename SizeT>
-void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(SizeT index, const SizeT* dims, SizeT num_dims, NDIndex* idxs) {
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(SizeT index, const SizeT* dims, SizeT num_dims, NDIndexInt* idxs) {
     SizeT stride = 1;
     for (SizeT dim = 0; dim < num_dims; dim++) {
         SizeT i = num_dims - dim - 1;
@@ -28,7 +30,10 @@ void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(SizeT index, const SizeT* dims, SizeT n
 }
 
 template<typename SizeT>
-SizeT __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(const SizeT* dims, SizeT num_dims, const NDIndex* indices, SizeT num_indices) {
+SizeT __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(const SizeT* dims,
+                                        SizeT num_dims,
+                                        const NDIndexInt* indices,
+                                        SizeT num_indices) {
     SizeT idx = 0;
     SizeT stride = 1;
     for (SizeT i = 0; i < num_dims; ++i) {
@@ -75,8 +80,8 @@ void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_impl(const SizeT* lhs_dims,
 template<typename SizeT>
 void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx_impl(const SizeT* src_dims,
                                             SizeT src_ndims,
-                                            const NDIndex* in_idx,
+                                            const NDIndexInt* in_idx,
-                                            NDIndex* out_idx) {
+                                            NDIndexInt* out_idx) {
     for (SizeT i = 0; i < src_ndims; ++i) {
         SizeT src_i = src_ndims - i - 1;
         out_idx[src_i] = src_dims[src_i] == 1 ? 0 : in_idx[src_i];
@@ -94,21 +99,23 @@ __nac3_ndarray_calc_size64(const uint64_t* list_data, uint64_t list_len, uint64_
     return __nac3_ndarray_calc_size_impl(list_data, list_len, begin_idx, end_idx);
 }
 
-void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices(uint32_t index, const uint32_t* dims, uint32_t num_dims, NDIndex* idxs) {
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices(uint32_t index, const uint32_t* dims, uint32_t num_dims, NDIndexInt* idxs) {
     __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(index, dims, num_dims, idxs);
 }
 
-void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices64(uint64_t index, const uint64_t* dims, uint64_t num_dims, NDIndex* idxs) {
+void __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices64(uint64_t index, const uint64_t* dims, uint64_t num_dims, NDIndexInt* idxs) {
     __nac3_ndarray_calc_nd_indices_impl(index, dims, num_dims, idxs);
 }
 
 uint32_t
-__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index(const uint32_t* dims, uint32_t num_dims, const NDIndex* indices, uint32_t num_indices) {
+__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index(const uint32_t* dims, uint32_t num_dims, const NDIndexInt* indices, uint32_t num_indices) {
     return __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(dims, num_dims, indices, num_indices);
 }
 
-uint64_t
+uint64_t __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index64(const uint64_t* dims,
-__nac3_ndarray_flatten_index64(const uint64_t* dims, uint64_t num_dims, const NDIndex* indices, uint64_t num_indices) {
+                                        uint64_t num_dims,
+                                        const NDIndexInt* indices,
+                                        uint64_t num_indices) {
     return __nac3_ndarray_flatten_index_impl(dims, num_dims, indices, num_indices);
 }
 
@@ -130,15 +137,15 @@ void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast64(const uint64_t* lhs_dims,
 
 void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx(const uint32_t* src_dims,
                                        uint32_t src_ndims,
-                                       const NDIndex* in_idx,
+                                       const NDIndexInt* in_idx,
-                                       NDIndex* out_idx) {
+                                       NDIndexInt* out_idx) {
     __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx_impl(src_dims, src_ndims, in_idx, out_idx);
 }
 
 void __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx64(const uint64_t* src_dims,
                                          uint64_t src_ndims,
-                                         const NDIndex* in_idx,
+                                         const NDIndexInt* in_idx,
-                                         NDIndex* out_idx) {
+                                         NDIndexInt* out_idx) {
     __nac3_ndarray_calc_broadcast_idx_impl(src_dims, src_ndims, in_idx, out_idx);
 }
 }

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/array.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/debug.hpp"
+#include "irrt/exception.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/list.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+namespace ndarray {
+namespace array {
+/**
+ * @brief In the context of `np.array(<list>)`, deduce the ndarray's shape produced by `<list>` and raise
+ * an exception if there is anything wrong with `<shape>` (e.g., inconsistent dimensions `np.array([[1.0, 2.0],
+ * [3.0]])`)
+ *
+ * If this function finds no issues with `<list>`, the deduced shape is written to `shape`. The caller has the
+ * responsibility to allocate `[SizeT; ndims]` for `shape`. The caller must also initialize `shape` with `-1`s because
+ * of implementation details.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void set_and_validate_list_shape_helper(SizeT axis, List<SizeT>* list, SizeT ndims, SizeT* shape) {
+    if (shape[axis] == -1) {
+        // Dimension is unspecified. Set it.
+        shape[axis] = list->len;
+    } else {
+        // Dimension is specified. Check.
+        if (shape[axis] != list->len) {
+            // Mismatch, throw an error.
+            // NOTE: NumPy's error message is more complex and needs more PARAMS to display.
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR,
+                            "The requested array has an inhomogenous shape "
+                            "after {0} dimension(s).",
+                            axis, shape[axis], list->len);
+        }
+    }
+
+    if (axis + 1 == ndims) {
+        // `list` has type `list[ItemType]`
+        // Do nothing
+    } else {
+        // `list` has type `list[list[...]]`
+        List<SizeT>** lists = (List<SizeT>**)(list->items);
+        for (SizeT i = 0; i < list->len; i++) {
+            set_and_validate_list_shape_helper<SizeT>(axis + 1, lists[i], ndims, shape);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief See `set_and_validate_list_shape_helper`.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void set_and_validate_list_shape(List<SizeT>* list, SizeT ndims, SizeT* shape) {
+    for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++) {
+        shape[axis] = -1;  // Sentinel to say this dimension is unspecified.
+    }
+    set_and_validate_list_shape_helper<SizeT>(0, list, ndims, shape);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief In the context of `np.array(<list>)`, copied the contents stored in `list` to `ndarray`.
+ *
+ * `list` is assumed to be "legal". (i.e., no inconsistent dimensions)
+ *
+ * # Notes on `ndarray`
+ * The caller is responsible for allocating space for `ndarray`.
+ * Here is what this function expects from `ndarray` when called:
+ *   - `ndarray->data` has to be allocated, contiguous, and may contain uninitialized values.
+ *   - `ndarray->itemsize` has to be initialized.
+ *   - `ndarray->ndims` has to be initialized.
+ *   - `ndarray->shape` has to be initialized.
+ *   - `ndarray->strides` is ignored, but note that `ndarray->data` is contiguous.
+ * When this function call ends:
+ *   - `ndarray->data` is written with contents from `<list>`.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void write_list_to_array_helper(SizeT axis, SizeT* index, List<SizeT>* list, NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, list->len, ndarray->shape[axis]);
+    if (IRRT_DEBUG_ASSERT_BOOL) {
+        if (!ndarray::basic::is_c_contiguous(ndarray)) {
+            raise_debug_assert(SizeT, "ndarray is not C-contiguous", ndarray->strides[0], ndarray->strides[1],
+                               NO_PARAM);
+        }
+    }
+
+    if (axis + 1 == ndarray->ndims) {
+        // `list` has type `list[scalar]`
+        // `ndarray` is contiguous, so we can do this, and this is fast.
+        uint8_t* dst = ndarray->data + (ndarray->itemsize * (*index));
+        __builtin_memcpy(dst, list->items, ndarray->itemsize * list->len);
+        *index += list->len;
+    } else {
+        // `list` has type `list[list[...]]`
+        List<SizeT>** lists = (List<SizeT>**)(list->items);
+
+        for (SizeT i = 0; i < list->len; i++) {
+            write_list_to_array_helper<SizeT>(axis + 1, index, lists[i], ndarray);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief See `write_list_to_array_helper`.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void write_list_to_array(List<SizeT>* list, NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    SizeT index = 0;
+    write_list_to_array_helper<SizeT>((SizeT)0, &index, list, ndarray);
+}
+}  // namespace array
+}  // namespace ndarray
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+using namespace ndarray::array;
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_array_set_and_validate_list_shape(List<int32_t>* list, int32_t ndims, int32_t* shape) {
+    set_and_validate_list_shape(list, ndims, shape);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_array_set_and_validate_list_shape64(List<int64_t>* list, int64_t ndims, int64_t* shape) {
+    set_and_validate_list_shape(list, ndims, shape);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_array_write_list_to_array(List<int32_t>* list, NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    write_list_to_array(list, ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_array_write_list_to_array64(List<int64_t>* list, NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    write_list_to_array(list, ndarray);
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,341 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/debug.hpp"
+#include "irrt/exception.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+namespace ndarray {
+namespace basic {
+/**
+ * @brief Assert that `shape` does not contain negative dimensions.
+ *
+ * @param ndims Number of dimensions in `shape`
+ * @param shape The shape to check on
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void assert_shape_no_negative(SizeT ndims, const SizeT* shape) {
+    for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++) {
+        if (shape[axis] < 0) {
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR,
+                            "negative dimensions are not allowed; axis {0} "
+                            "has dimension {1}",
+                            axis, shape[axis], NO_PARAM);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Assert that two shapes are the same in the context of writing output to an ndarray.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void assert_output_shape_same(SizeT ndarray_ndims,
+                              const SizeT* ndarray_shape,
+                              SizeT output_ndims,
+                              const SizeT* output_shape) {
+    if (ndarray_ndims != output_ndims) {
+        // There is no corresponding NumPy error message like this.
+        raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "Cannot write output of ndims {0} to an ndarray with ndims {1}",
+                        output_ndims, ndarray_ndims, NO_PARAM);
+    }
+
+    for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndarray_ndims; axis++) {
+        if (ndarray_shape[axis] != output_shape[axis]) {
+            // There is no corresponding NumPy error message like this.
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR,
+                            "Mismatched dimensions on axis {0}, output has "
+                            "dimension {1}, but destination ndarray has dimension {2}.",
+                            axis, output_shape[axis], ndarray_shape[axis]);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return the number of elements of an ndarray given its shape.
+ *
+ * @param ndims Number of dimensions in `shape`
+ * @param shape The shape of the ndarray
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+SizeT calc_size_from_shape(SizeT ndims, const SizeT* shape) {
+    SizeT size = 1;
+    for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++)
+        size *= shape[axis];
+    return size;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Compute the array indices of the `nth` (0-based) element of an ndarray given only its shape.
+ *
+ * @param ndims Number of elements in `shape` and `indices`
+ * @param shape The shape of the ndarray
+ * @param indices The returned indices indexing the ndarray with shape `shape`.
+ * @param nth The index of the element of interest.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void set_indices_by_nth(SizeT ndims, const SizeT* shape, SizeT* indices, SizeT nth) {
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT axis = ndims - i - 1;
+        SizeT dim = shape[axis];
+
+        indices[axis] = nth % dim;
+        nth /= dim;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return the number of elements of an `ndarray`
+ *
+ * This function corresponds to `<an_ndarray>.size`
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+SizeT size(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    return calc_size_from_shape(ndarray->ndims, ndarray->shape);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return of the number of its content of an `ndarray`.
+ *
+ * This function corresponds to `<an_ndarray>.nbytes`.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+SizeT nbytes(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    return size(ndarray) * ndarray->itemsize;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Get the `len()` of an ndarray, and asserts that `ndarray` is a sized object.
+ *
+ * This function corresponds to `<an_ndarray>.__len__`.
+ *
+ * @param dst_length The length.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+SizeT len(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    // numpy prohibits `__len__` on unsized objects
+    if (ndarray->ndims == 0) {
+        raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_TYPE_ERROR, "len() of unsized object", NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
+    } else {
+        return ndarray->shape[0];
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return a boolean indicating if `ndarray` is (C-)contiguous.
+ *
+ * You may want to see ndarray's rules for C-contiguity:
+ * https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/df256d0d2f3bc6833699529824781c58f9c6e697/numpy/core/src/multiarray/flagsobject.c#L95C1-L99C45
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+bool is_c_contiguous(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    // References:
+    // - tinynumpy's implementation:
+    // https://github.com/wadetb/tinynumpy/blob/0d23d22e07062ffab2afa287374c7b366eebdda1/tinynumpy/tinynumpy.py#L102
+    // - ndarray's flags["C_CONTIGUOUS"]:
+    // https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.flags.html#numpy.ndarray.flags
+    // - ndarray's rules for C-contiguity:
+    // https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/df256d0d2f3bc6833699529824781c58f9c6e697/numpy/core/src/multiarray/flagsobject.c#L95C1-L99C45
+
+    // From
+    // https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/df256d0d2f3bc6833699529824781c58f9c6e697/numpy/core/src/multiarray/flagsobject.c#L95C1-L99C45:
+    //
+    // The traditional rule is that for an array to be flagged as C contiguous,
+    // the following must hold:
+    //
+    // strides[-1] == itemsize
+    // strides[i] == shape[i+1] * strides[i + 1]
+    // [...]
+    // According to these rules, a 0- or 1-dimensional array is either both
+    // C- and F-contiguous, or neither; and an array with 2+ dimensions
+    // can be C- or F- contiguous, or neither, but not both. Though there
+    // there are exceptions for arrays with zero or one item, in the first
+    // case the check is relaxed up to and including the first dimension
+    // with shape[i] == 0. In the second case `strides == itemsize` will
+    // can be true for all dimensions and both flags are set.
+
+    if (ndarray->ndims == 0) {
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    if (ndarray->strides[ndarray->ndims - 1] != ndarray->itemsize) {
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    for (SizeT i = 1; i < ndarray->ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT axis_i = ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
+        if (ndarray->strides[axis_i] != ndarray->shape[axis_i + 1] * ndarray->strides[axis_i + 1]) {
+            return false;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return true;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return the pointer to the element indexed by `indices` along the ndarray's axes.
+ *
+ * This function does no bound check.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+uint8_t* get_pelement_by_indices(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, const SizeT* indices) {
+    uint8_t* element = ndarray->data;
+    for (SizeT dim_i = 0; dim_i < ndarray->ndims; dim_i++)
+        element += indices[dim_i] * ndarray->strides[dim_i];
+    return element;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return the pointer to the nth (0-based) element of `ndarray` in flattened view.
+ *
+ * This function does no bound check.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+uint8_t* get_nth_pelement(const NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, SizeT nth) {
+    uint8_t* element = ndarray->data;
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndarray->ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT axis = ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
+        SizeT dim = ndarray->shape[axis];
+        element += ndarray->strides[axis] * (nth % dim);
+        nth /= dim;
+    }
+    return element;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Update the strides of an ndarray given an ndarray `shape` to be contiguous.
+ *
+ * You might want to read https://ajcr.net/stride-guide-part-1/.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void set_strides_by_shape(NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray) {
+    SizeT stride_product = 1;
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndarray->ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT axis = ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
+        ndarray->strides[axis] = stride_product * ndarray->itemsize;
+        stride_product *= ndarray->shape[axis];
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Set an element in `ndarray`.
+ *
+ * @param pelement Pointer to the element in `ndarray` to be set.
+ * @param pvalue Pointer to the value `pelement` will be set to.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void set_pelement_value(NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, uint8_t* pelement, const uint8_t* pvalue) {
+    __builtin_memcpy(pelement, pvalue, ndarray->itemsize);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Copy data from one ndarray to another of the exact same size and itemsize.
+ *
+ * Both ndarrays will be viewed in their flatten views when copying the elements.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void copy_data(const NDArray<SizeT>* src_ndarray, NDArray<SizeT>* dst_ndarray) {
+    // TODO: Make this faster with memcpy when we see a contiguous segment.
+    // TODO: Handle overlapping.
+
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, src_ndarray->itemsize, dst_ndarray->itemsize);
+
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < size(src_ndarray); i++) {
+        auto src_element = ndarray::basic::get_nth_pelement(src_ndarray, i);
+        auto dst_element = ndarray::basic::get_nth_pelement(dst_ndarray, i);
+        ndarray::basic::set_pelement_value(dst_ndarray, dst_element, src_element);
+    }
+}
+}  // namespace basic
+}  // namespace ndarray
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+using namespace ndarray::basic;
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative(int32_t ndims, int32_t* shape) {
+    assert_shape_no_negative(ndims, shape);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative64(int64_t ndims, int64_t* shape) {
+    assert_shape_no_negative(ndims, shape);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same(int32_t ndarray_ndims,
+                                                  const int32_t* ndarray_shape,
+                                                  int32_t output_ndims,
+                                                  const int32_t* output_shape) {
+    assert_output_shape_same(ndarray_ndims, ndarray_shape, output_ndims, output_shape);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same64(int64_t ndarray_ndims,
+                                                    const int64_t* ndarray_shape,
+                                                    int64_t output_ndims,
+                                                    const int64_t* output_shape) {
+    assert_output_shape_same(ndarray_ndims, ndarray_shape, output_ndims, output_shape);
+}
+
+uint32_t __nac3_ndarray_size(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    return size(ndarray);
+}
+
+uint64_t __nac3_ndarray_size64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    return size(ndarray);
+}
+
+uint32_t __nac3_ndarray_nbytes(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    return nbytes(ndarray);
+}
+
+uint64_t __nac3_ndarray_nbytes64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    return nbytes(ndarray);
+}
+
+int32_t __nac3_ndarray_len(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    return len(ndarray);
+}
+
+int64_t __nac3_ndarray_len64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    return len(ndarray);
+}
+
+bool __nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    return is_c_contiguous(ndarray);
+}
+
+bool __nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    return is_c_contiguous(ndarray);
+}
+
+uint8_t* __nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement(const NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray, int32_t nth) {
+    return get_nth_pelement(ndarray, nth);
+}
+
+uint8_t* __nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement64(const NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray, int64_t nth) {
+    return get_nth_pelement(ndarray, nth);
+}
+
+uint8_t* __nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices(const NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray, int32_t* indices) {
+    return get_pelement_by_indices(ndarray, indices);
+}
+
+uint8_t* __nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices64(const NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray, int64_t* indices) {
+    return get_pelement_by_indices(ndarray, indices);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape(NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray) {
+    set_strides_by_shape(ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape64(NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray) {
+    set_strides_by_shape(ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_copy_data(NDArray<int32_t>* src_ndarray, NDArray<int32_t>* dst_ndarray) {
+    copy_data(src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_copy_data64(NDArray<int64_t>* src_ndarray, NDArray<int64_t>* dst_ndarray) {
+    copy_data(src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/broadcast.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,165 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+#include "irrt/slice.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+template<typename SizeT>
+struct ShapeEntry {
+    SizeT ndims;
+    SizeT* shape;
+};
+}  // namespace
+
+namespace {
+namespace ndarray {
+namespace broadcast {
+/**
+ * @brief Return true if `src_shape` can broadcast to `dst_shape`.
+ *
+ * See https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.broadcasting.html
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+bool can_broadcast_shape_to(SizeT target_ndims, const SizeT* target_shape, SizeT src_ndims, const SizeT* src_shape) {
+    if (src_ndims > target_ndims) {
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < src_ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT target_dim = target_shape[target_ndims - i - 1];
+        SizeT src_dim = src_shape[src_ndims - i - 1];
+        if (!(src_dim == 1 || target_dim == src_dim)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+    }
+    return true;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Performs `np.broadcast_shapes(<shapes>)`
+ *
+ * @param num_shapes Number of entries in `shapes`
+ * @param shapes The list of shape to do `np.broadcast_shapes` on.
+ * @param dst_ndims The length of `dst_shape`.
+ *   `dst_ndims` must be `max([shape.ndims for shape in shapes])`, but the caller has to calculate it/provide it.
+ *   for this function since they should already know in order to allocate `dst_shape` in the first place.
+ * @param dst_shape The resulting shape. Must be pre-allocated by the caller. This function calculate the result
+ *   of `np.broadcast_shapes` and write it here.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void broadcast_shapes(SizeT num_shapes, const ShapeEntry<SizeT>* shapes, SizeT dst_ndims, SizeT* dst_shape) {
+    for (SizeT dst_axis = 0; dst_axis < dst_ndims; dst_axis++) {
+        dst_shape[dst_axis] = 1;
+    }
+
+#ifdef IRRT_DEBUG_ASSERT
+    SizeT max_ndims_found = 0;
+#endif
+
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < num_shapes; i++) {
+        ShapeEntry<SizeT> entry = shapes[i];
+
+        // Check pre-condition: `dst_ndims` must be `max([shape.ndims for shape in shapes])`
+        debug_assert(SizeT, entry.ndims <= dst_ndims);
+
+#ifdef IRRT_DEBUG_ASSERT
+        max_ndims_found = max(max_ndims_found, entry.ndims);
+#endif
+
+        for (SizeT j = 0; j < entry.ndims; j++) {
+            SizeT entry_axis = entry.ndims - j - 1;
+            SizeT dst_axis = dst_ndims - j - 1;
+
+            SizeT entry_dim = entry.shape[entry_axis];
+            SizeT dst_dim = dst_shape[dst_axis];
+
+            if (dst_dim == 1) {
+                dst_shape[dst_axis] = entry_dim;
+            } else if (entry_dim == 1 || entry_dim == dst_dim) {
+                // Do nothing
+            } else {
+                raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR,
+                                "shape mismatch: objects cannot be broadcast "
+                                "to a single shape.",
+                                NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Check pre-condition: `dst_ndims` must be `max([shape.ndims for shape in shapes])`
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, max_ndims_found, dst_ndims);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Perform `np.broadcast_to(<ndarray>, <target_shape>)` and appropriate assertions.
+ *
+ * This function attempts to broadcast `src_ndarray` to a new shape defined by `dst_ndarray.shape`,
+ * and return the result by modifying `dst_ndarray`.
+ *
+ * # Notes on `dst_ndarray`
+ * The caller is responsible for allocating space for the resulting ndarray.
+ * Here is what this function expects from `dst_ndarray` when called:
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->data` does not have to be initialized.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->itemsize` does not have to be initialized.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->ndims` must be initialized, determining the length of `dst_ndarray->shape`
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->shape` must be allocated, and must contain the desired target broadcast shape.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->strides` must be allocated, through it can contain uninitialized values.
+ * When this function call ends:
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->data` is set to `src_ndarray->data` (`dst_ndarray` is just a view to `src_ndarray`)
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->itemsize` is set to `src_ndarray->itemsize`
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->ndims` is unchanged.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->shape` is unchanged.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->strides` is updated accordingly by how ndarray broadcast_to works.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void broadcast_to(const NDArray<SizeT>* src_ndarray, NDArray<SizeT>* dst_ndarray) {
+    if (!ndarray::broadcast::can_broadcast_shape_to(dst_ndarray->ndims, dst_ndarray->shape, src_ndarray->ndims,
+                                                    src_ndarray->shape)) {
+        raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "operands could not be broadcast together", NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM,
+                        NO_PARAM);
+    }
+
+    dst_ndarray->data = src_ndarray->data;
+    dst_ndarray->itemsize = src_ndarray->itemsize;
+
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < dst_ndarray->ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT src_axis = src_ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
+        SizeT dst_axis = dst_ndarray->ndims - i - 1;
+        if (src_axis < 0 || (src_ndarray->shape[src_axis] == 1 && dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] != 1)) {
+            // Freeze the steps in-place
+            dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = 0;
+        } else {
+            dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+        }
+    }
+}
+}  // namespace broadcast
+}  // namespace ndarray
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+using namespace ndarray::broadcast;
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_broadcast_to(NDArray<int32_t>* src_ndarray, NDArray<int32_t>* dst_ndarray) {
+    broadcast_to(src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_broadcast_to64(NDArray<int64_t>* src_ndarray, NDArray<int64_t>* dst_ndarray) {
+    broadcast_to(src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_broadcast_shapes(int32_t num_shapes,
+                                     const ShapeEntry<int32_t>* shapes,
+                                     int32_t dst_ndims,
+                                     int32_t* dst_shape) {
+    broadcast_shapes(num_shapes, shapes, dst_ndims, dst_shape);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_broadcast_shapes64(int64_t num_shapes,
+                                       const ShapeEntry<int64_t>* shapes,
+                                       int64_t dst_ndims,
+                                       int64_t* dst_shape) {
+    broadcast_shapes(num_shapes, shapes, dst_ndims, dst_shape);
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/def.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+/**
+ * @brief The NDArray object
+ *
+ * Official numpy implementation:
+ * https://github.com/numpy/numpy/blob/735a477f0bc2b5b84d0e72d92f224bde78d4e069/doc/source/reference/c-api/types-and-structures.rst
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+struct NDArray {
+    /**
+     * @brief The underlying data this `ndarray` is pointing to.
+     */
+    uint8_t* data;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The number of bytes of a single element in `data`.
+     */
+    SizeT itemsize;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The number of dimensions of this shape.
+     */
+    SizeT ndims;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The NDArray shape, with length equal to `ndims`.
+     *
+     * Note that it may contain 0.
+     */
+    SizeT* shape;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Array strides, with length equal to `ndims`
+     *
+     * The stride values are in units of bytes, not number of elements.
+     *
+     * Note that `strides` can have negative values or contain 0.
+     */
+    SizeT* strides;
+};
+}  // namespace

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/indexing.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,220 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/exception.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/basic.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+#include "irrt/range.hpp"
+#include "irrt/slice.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+typedef uint8_t NDIndexType;
+
+/**
+ * @brief A single element index
+ *
+ * `data` points to a `int32_t`.
+ */
+const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_SINGLE_ELEMENT = 0;
+
+/**
+ * @brief A slice index
+ *
+ * `data` points to a `Slice<int32_t>`.
+ */
+const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_SLICE = 1;
+
+/**
+ * @brief `np.newaxis` / `None`
+ *
+ * `data` is unused.
+ */
+const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_NEWAXIS = 2;
+
+/**
+ * @brief `Ellipsis` / `...`
+ *
+ * `data` is unused.
+ */
+const NDIndexType ND_INDEX_TYPE_ELLIPSIS = 3;
+
+/**
+ * @brief An index used in ndarray indexing
+ *
+ * That is:
+ * ```
+ * my_ndarray[::-1, 3, ..., np.newaxis]
+ *            ^^^^  ^  ^^^  ^^^^^^^^^^ each of these is represented by an NDIndex.
+ * ```
+ */
+struct NDIndex {
+    /**
+     * @brief Enum tag to specify the type of index.
+     *
+     * Please see the comment of each enum constant.
+     */
+    NDIndexType type;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The accompanying data associated with `type`.
+     *
+     * Please see the comment of each enum constant.
+     */
+    uint8_t* data;
+};
+}  // namespace
+
+namespace {
+namespace ndarray {
+namespace indexing {
+/**
+ * @brief Perform ndarray "basic indexing" (https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.indexing.html#basic-indexing)
+ *
+ * This function is very similar to performing `dst_ndarray = src_ndarray[indices]` in Python.
+ *
+ * This function also does proper assertions on `indices` to check for out of bounds access and more.
+ *
+ * # Notes on `dst_ndarray`
+ * The caller is responsible for allocating space for the resulting ndarray.
+ * Here is what this function expects from `dst_ndarray` when called:
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->data` does not have to be initialized.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->itemsize` does not have to be initialized.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->ndims` must be initialized, and it must be equal to the expected `ndims` of the `dst_ndarray` after
+ *       indexing `src_ndarray` with `indices`.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->shape` must be allocated, through it can contain uninitialized values.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->strides` must be allocated, through it can contain uninitialized values.
+ * When this function call ends:
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->data` is set to `src_ndarray->data`.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->itemsize` is set to `src_ndarray->itemsize`.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->ndims` is unchanged.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->shape` is updated according to how `src_ndarray` is indexed.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->strides` is updated accordingly by how ndarray indexing works.
+ *
+ * @param indices indices to index `src_ndarray`, ordered in the same way you would write them in Python.
+ * @param src_ndarray The NDArray to be indexed.
+ * @param dst_ndarray The resulting NDArray after indexing. Further details in the comments above,
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void index(SizeT num_indices, const NDIndex* indices, const NDArray<SizeT>* src_ndarray, NDArray<SizeT>* dst_ndarray) {
+    // Validate `indices`.
+
+    // Expected value of `dst_ndarray->ndims`.
+    SizeT expected_dst_ndims = src_ndarray->ndims;
+    // To check for "too many indices for array: array is ?-dimensional, but ? were indexed"
+    SizeT num_indexed = 0;
+    // There may be ellipsis `...` in `indices`. There can only be 0 or 1 ellipsis.
+    SizeT num_ellipsis = 0;
+
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < num_indices; i++) {
+        if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SINGLE_ELEMENT) {
+            expected_dst_ndims--;
+            num_indexed++;
+        } else if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SLICE) {
+            num_indexed++;
+        } else if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_NEWAXIS) {
+            expected_dst_ndims++;
+        } else if (indices[i].type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_ELLIPSIS) {
+            num_ellipsis++;
+            if (num_ellipsis > 1) {
+                raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_INDEX_ERROR, "an index can only have a single ellipsis ('...')", NO_PARAM,
+                                NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
+            }
+        } else {
+            __builtin_unreachable();
+        }
+    }
+
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, expected_dst_ndims, dst_ndarray->ndims);
+
+    if (src_ndarray->ndims - num_indexed < 0) {
+        raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_INDEX_ERROR,
+                        "too many indices for array: array is {0}-dimensional, "
+                        "but {1} were indexed",
+                        src_ndarray->ndims, num_indices, NO_PARAM);
+    }
+
+    dst_ndarray->data = src_ndarray->data;
+    dst_ndarray->itemsize = src_ndarray->itemsize;
+
+    // Reference code:
+    // https://github.com/wadetb/tinynumpy/blob/0d23d22e07062ffab2afa287374c7b366eebdda1/tinynumpy/tinynumpy.py#L652
+    SizeT src_axis = 0;
+    SizeT dst_axis = 0;
+
+    for (int32_t i = 0; i < num_indices; i++) {
+        const NDIndex* index = &indices[i];
+        if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SINGLE_ELEMENT) {
+            SizeT input = (SizeT) * ((int32_t*)index->data);
+
+            SizeT k = slice::resolve_index_in_length(src_ndarray->shape[src_axis], input);
+            if (k == -1) {
+                raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_INDEX_ERROR,
+                                "index {0} is out of bounds for axis {1} "
+                                "with size {2}",
+                                input, src_axis, src_ndarray->shape[src_axis]);
+            }
+
+            dst_ndarray->data += k * src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+
+            src_axis++;
+        } else if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_SLICE) {
+            Slice<int32_t>* slice = (Slice<int32_t>*)index->data;
+
+            Range<int32_t> range = slice->indices_checked<SizeT>(src_ndarray->shape[src_axis]);
+
+            dst_ndarray->data += (SizeT)range.start * src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+            dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = ((SizeT)range.step) * src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+            dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = (SizeT)range.len<SizeT>();
+
+            dst_axis++;
+            src_axis++;
+        } else if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_NEWAXIS) {
+            dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = 0;
+            dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = 1;
+
+            dst_axis++;
+        } else if (index->type == ND_INDEX_TYPE_ELLIPSIS) {
+            // The number of ':' entries this '...' implies.
+            SizeT ellipsis_size = src_ndarray->ndims - num_indexed;
+
+            for (SizeT j = 0; j < ellipsis_size; j++) {
+                dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+                dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->shape[src_axis];
+
+                dst_axis++;
+                src_axis++;
+            }
+        } else {
+            __builtin_unreachable();
+        }
+    }
+
+    for (; dst_axis < dst_ndarray->ndims; dst_axis++, src_axis++) {
+        dst_ndarray->shape[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->shape[src_axis];
+        dst_ndarray->strides[dst_axis] = src_ndarray->strides[src_axis];
+    }
+
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, src_ndarray->ndims, src_axis);
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, dst_ndarray->ndims, dst_axis);
+}
+}  // namespace indexing
+}  // namespace ndarray
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+using namespace ndarray::indexing;
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_index(int32_t num_indices,
+                          NDIndex* indices,
+                          NDArray<int32_t>* src_ndarray,
+                          NDArray<int32_t>* dst_ndarray) {
+    index(num_indices, indices, src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_index64(int64_t num_indices,
+                            NDIndex* indices,
+                            NDArray<int64_t>* src_ndarray,
+                            NDArray<int64_t>* dst_ndarray) {
+    index(num_indices, indices, src_ndarray, dst_ndarray);
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/iter.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+/**
+ * @brief Helper struct to enumerate through an ndarray *efficiently*.
+ *
+ * Example usage (in pseudo-code):
+ * ```
+ * // Suppose my_ndarray has been initialized, with shape [2, 3] and dtype `double`
+ * NDIter nditer;
+ * nditer.initialize(my_ndarray);
+ * while (nditer.has_element()) {
+ *    // This body is run 6 (= my_ndarray.size) times.
+ *
+ *    // [0, 0] -> [0, 1] -> [0, 2] -> [1, 0] -> [1, 1] -> [1, 2] -> end
+ *    print(nditer.indices);
+ *
+ *    // 0 -> 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5
+ *    print(nditer.nth);
+ *
+ *    // <1st element> -> <2nd element> -> ... -> <6th element> -> end
+ *    print(*((double *) nditer.element))
+ *
+ *    nditer.next(); // Go to next element.
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * Interesting cases:
+ * - If `my_ndarray.ndims` == 0, there is one iteration.
+ * - If `my_ndarray.shape` contains zeroes, there are no iterations.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+struct NDIter {
+    // Information about the ndarray being iterated over.
+    SizeT ndims;
+    SizeT* shape;
+    SizeT* strides;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The current indices.
+     *
+     * Must be allocated by the caller.
+     */
+    SizeT* indices;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The nth (0-based) index of the current indices.
+     *
+     * Initially this is 0.
+     */
+    SizeT nth;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Pointer to the current element.
+     *
+     * Initially this points to first element of the ndarray.
+     */
+    uint8_t* element;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Cache for the product of shape.
+     *
+     * Could be 0 if `shape` has 0s in it.
+     */
+    SizeT size;
+
+    void initialize(SizeT ndims, SizeT* shape, SizeT* strides, uint8_t* element, SizeT* indices) {
+        this->ndims = ndims;
+        this->shape = shape;
+        this->strides = strides;
+
+        this->indices = indices;
+        this->element = element;
+
+        // Compute size
+        this->size = 1;
+        for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++) {
+            this->size *= shape[i];
+        }
+
+        // `indices` starts on all 0s.
+        for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++)
+            indices[axis] = 0;
+        nth = 0;
+    }
+
+    void initialize_by_ndarray(NDArray<SizeT>* ndarray, SizeT* indices) {
+        // NOTE: ndarray->data is pointing to the first element, and `NDIter`'s `element` should also point to the first
+        // element as well.
+        this->initialize(ndarray->ndims, ndarray->shape, ndarray->strides, ndarray->data, indices);
+    }
+
+    // Is the current iteration valid?
+    // If true, then `element`, `indices` and `nth` contain details about the current element.
+    bool has_element() { return nth < size; }
+
+    // Go to the next element.
+    void next() {
+        for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++) {
+            SizeT axis = ndims - i - 1;
+            indices[axis]++;
+            if (indices[axis] >= shape[axis]) {
+                indices[axis] = 0;
+
+                // TODO: There is something called backstrides to speedup iteration.
+                // See https://ajcr.net/stride-guide-part-1/, and
+                // https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy-1.13.0/reference/c-api.types-and-structures.html#c.PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.backstrides.
+                element -= strides[axis] * (shape[axis] - 1);
+            } else {
+                element += strides[axis];
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        nth++;
+    }
+};
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+void __nac3_nditer_initialize(NDIter<int32_t>* iter, NDArray<int32_t>* ndarray, int32_t* indices) {
+    iter->initialize_by_ndarray(ndarray, indices);
+}
+
+void __nac3_nditer_initialize64(NDIter<int64_t>* iter, NDArray<int64_t>* ndarray, int64_t* indices) {
+    iter->initialize_by_ndarray(ndarray, indices);
+}
+
+bool __nac3_nditer_has_element(NDIter<int32_t>* iter) {
+    return iter->has_element();
+}
+
+bool __nac3_nditer_has_element64(NDIter<int64_t>* iter) {
+    return iter->has_element();
+}
+
+void __nac3_nditer_next(NDIter<int32_t>* iter) {
+    iter->next();
+}
+
+void __nac3_nditer_next64(NDIter<int64_t>* iter) {
+    iter->next();
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/reshape.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/exception.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+namespace ndarray {
+namespace reshape {
+/**
+ * @brief Perform assertions on and resolve unknown dimensions in `new_shape` in `np.reshape(<ndarray>, new_shape)`
+ *
+ * If `new_shape` indeed contains unknown dimensions (specified with `-1`, just like numpy), `new_shape` will be
+ * modified to contain the resolved dimension.
+ *
+ * To perform assertions on and resolve unknown dimensions in `new_shape`, we don't need the actual
+ * `<ndarray>` object itself, but only the `.size` of the `<ndarray>`.
+ *
+ * @param size The `.size` of `<ndarray>`
+ * @param new_ndims Number of elements in `new_shape`
+ * @param new_shape Target shape to reshape to
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void resolve_and_check_new_shape(SizeT size, SizeT new_ndims, SizeT* new_shape) {
+    // Is there a -1 in `new_shape`?
+    bool neg1_exists = false;
+    // Location of -1, only initialized if `neg1_exists` is true
+    SizeT neg1_axis_i;
+    // The computed ndarray size of `new_shape`
+    SizeT new_size = 1;
+
+    for (SizeT axis_i = 0; axis_i < new_ndims; axis_i++) {
+        SizeT dim = new_shape[axis_i];
+        if (dim < 0) {
+            if (dim == -1) {
+                if (neg1_exists) {
+                    // Multiple `-1` found. Throw an error.
+                    raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "can only specify one unknown dimension", NO_PARAM,
+                                    NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
+                } else {
+                    neg1_exists = true;
+                    neg1_axis_i = axis_i;
+                }
+            } else {
+                // TODO: What? In `np.reshape` any negative dimensions is
+                // treated like its `-1`.
+                //
+                // Try running `np.zeros((3, 4)).reshape((-999, 2))`
+                //
+                // It is not documented by numpy.
+                // Throw an error for now...
+
+                raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "Found non -1 negative dimension {0} on axis {1}", dim, axis_i,
+                                NO_PARAM);
+            }
+        } else {
+            new_size *= dim;
+        }
+    }
+
+    bool can_reshape;
+    if (neg1_exists) {
+        // Let `x` be the unknown dimension
+        // Solve `x * <new_size> = <size>`
+        if (new_size == 0 && size == 0) {
+            // `x` has infinitely many solutions
+            can_reshape = false;
+        } else if (new_size == 0 && size != 0) {
+            // `x` has no solutions
+            can_reshape = false;
+        } else if (size % new_size != 0) {
+            // `x` has no integer solutions
+            can_reshape = false;
+        } else {
+            can_reshape = true;
+            new_shape[neg1_axis_i] = size / new_size;  // Resolve dimension
+        }
+    } else {
+        can_reshape = (new_size == size);
+    }
+
+    if (!can_reshape) {
+        raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "cannot reshape array of size {0} into given shape", size, NO_PARAM,
+                        NO_PARAM);
+    }
+}
+}  // namespace reshape
+}  // namespace ndarray
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+void __nac3_ndarray_reshape_resolve_and_check_new_shape(int32_t size, int32_t new_ndims, int32_t* new_shape) {
+    ndarray::reshape::resolve_and_check_new_shape(size, new_ndims, new_shape);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_reshape_resolve_and_check_new_shape64(int64_t size, int64_t new_ndims, int64_t* new_shape) {
+    ndarray::reshape::resolve_and_check_new_shape(size, new_ndims, new_shape);
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/ndarray/transpose.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/debug.hpp"
+#include "irrt/exception.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/ndarray/def.hpp"
+#include "irrt/slice.hpp"
+
+/*
+ * Notes on `np.transpose(<array>, <axes>)`
+ *
+ * TODO: `axes`, if specified, can actually contain negative indices,
+ * but it is not documented in numpy.
+ *
+ * Supporting it for now.
+ */
+
+namespace {
+namespace ndarray {
+namespace transpose {
+/**
+ * @brief Do assertions on `<axes>` in `np.transpose(<array>, <axes>)`.
+ *
+ * Note that `np.transpose`'s `<axe>` argument is optional. If the argument
+ * is specified but the user, use this function to do assertions on it.
+ *
+ * @param ndims The number of dimensions of `<array>`
+ * @param num_axes Number of elements in `<axes>` as specified by the user.
+ *   This should be equal to `ndims`. If not, a "ValueError: axes don't match array" is thrown.
+ * @param axes The user specified `<axes>`.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void assert_transpose_axes(SizeT ndims, SizeT num_axes, const SizeT* axes) {
+    if (ndims != num_axes) {
+        raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "axes don't match array", NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
+    }
+
+    // TODO: Optimize this
+    bool* axe_specified = (bool*)__builtin_alloca(sizeof(bool) * ndims);
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++)
+        axe_specified[i] = false;
+
+    for (SizeT i = 0; i < ndims; i++) {
+        SizeT axis = slice::resolve_index_in_length(ndims, axes[i]);
+        if (axis == -1) {
+            // TODO: numpy actually throws a `numpy.exceptions.AxisError`
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "axis {0} is out of bounds for array of dimension {1}", axis, ndims,
+                            NO_PARAM);
+        }
+
+        if (axe_specified[axis]) {
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "repeated axis in transpose", NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
+        }
+
+        axe_specified[axis] = true;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Create a transpose view of `src_ndarray` and perform proper assertions.
+ *
+ * This function is very similar to doing `dst_ndarray = np.transpose(src_ndarray, <axes>)`.
+ * If `<axes>` is supposed to be `None`, caller can pass in a `nullptr` to `<axes>`.
+ *
+ * The transpose view created is returned by modifying `dst_ndarray`.
+ *
+ * The caller is responsible for setting up `dst_ndarray` before calling this function.
+ * Here is what this function expects from `dst_ndarray` when called:
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->data` does not have to be initialized.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->itemsize` does not have to be initialized.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->ndims` must be initialized, must be equal to `src_ndarray->ndims`.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->shape` must be allocated, through it can contain uninitialized values.
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->strides` must be allocated, through it can contain uninitialized values.
+ * When this function call ends:
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->data` is set to `src_ndarray->data` (`dst_ndarray` is just a view to `src_ndarray`)
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->itemsize` is set to `src_ndarray->itemsize`
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->ndims` is unchanged
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->shape` is updated according to how `np.transpose` works
+ *   - `dst_ndarray->strides` is updated according to how `np.transpose` works
+ *
+ * @param src_ndarray The NDArray to build a transpose view on
+ * @param dst_ndarray The resulting NDArray after transpose. Further details in the comments above,
+ * @param num_axes Number of elements in axes. Unused if `axes` is nullptr.
+ * @param axes Axes permutation. Set it to `nullptr` if `<axes>` is `None`.
+ */
+template<typename SizeT>
+void transpose(const NDArray<SizeT>* src_ndarray, NDArray<SizeT>* dst_ndarray, SizeT num_axes, const SizeT* axes) {
+    debug_assert_eq(SizeT, src_ndarray->ndims, dst_ndarray->ndims);
+    const auto ndims = src_ndarray->ndims;
+
+    if (axes != nullptr)
+        assert_transpose_axes(ndims, num_axes, axes);
+
+    dst_ndarray->data = src_ndarray->data;
+    dst_ndarray->itemsize = src_ndarray->itemsize;
+
+    // Check out https://ajcr.net/stride-guide-part-2/ to see how `np.transpose` works behind the scenes.
+    if (axes == nullptr) {
+        // `np.transpose(<array>, axes=None)`
+
+        /*
+         * Minor note: `np.transpose(<array>, axes=None)` is equivalent to
+         * `np.transpose(<array>, axes=[N-1, N-2, ..., 0])` - basically it
+         * is reversing the order of strides and shape.
+         *
+         * This is a fast implementation to handle this special (but very common) case.
+         */
+
+        for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++) {
+            dst_ndarray->shape[axis] = src_ndarray->shape[ndims - axis - 1];
+            dst_ndarray->strides[axis] = src_ndarray->strides[ndims - axis - 1];
+        }
+    } else {
+        // `np.transpose(<array>, <axes>)`
+
+        // Permute strides and shape according to `axes`, while resolving negative indices in `axes`
+        for (SizeT axis = 0; axis < ndims; axis++) {
+            // `i` cannot be OUT_OF_BOUNDS because of assertions
+            SizeT i = slice::resolve_index_in_length(ndims, axes[axis]);
+
+            dst_ndarray->shape[axis] = src_ndarray->shape[i];
+            dst_ndarray->strides[axis] = src_ndarray->strides[i];
+        }
+    }
+}
+}  // namespace transpose
+}  // namespace ndarray
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+using namespace ndarray::transpose;
+void __nac3_ndarray_transpose(const NDArray<int32_t>* src_ndarray,
+                              NDArray<int32_t>* dst_ndarray,
+                              int32_t num_axes,
+                              const int32_t* axes) {
+    transpose(src_ndarray, dst_ndarray, num_axes, axes);
+}
+
+void __nac3_ndarray_transpose64(const NDArray<int64_t>* src_ndarray,
+                                NDArray<int64_t>* dst_ndarray,
+                                int64_t num_axes,
+                                const int64_t* axes) {
+    transpose(src_ndarray, dst_ndarray, num_axes, axes);
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/range.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "irrt/debug.hpp"
+#include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+namespace range {
+template<typename T>
+T len(T start, T stop, T step) {
+    // Reference:
+    // https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/9dbd12375561a393eaec4b21ee4ac568a407cdb0/Objects/rangeobject.c#L933
+    if (step > 0 && start < stop)
+        return 1 + (stop - 1 - start) / step;
+    else if (step < 0 && start > stop)
+        return 1 + (start - 1 - stop) / (-step);
+    else
+        return 0;
+}
+}  // namespace range
+
+/**
+ * @brief A Python range.
+ */
+template<typename T>
+struct Range {
+    T start;
+    T stop;
+    T step;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Calculate the `len()` of this range.
+     */
+    template<typename SizeT>
+    T len() {
+        debug_assert(SizeT, step != 0);
+        return range::len(start, stop, step);
+    }
+};
+}  // namespace
+
+extern "C" {
+using namespace range;
+
+SliceIndex __nac3_range_slice_len(const SliceIndex start, const SliceIndex end, const SliceIndex step) {
+    return len(start, end, step);
+}
+}

nac3core/irrt/irrt/slice.hpp

@@ -1,6 +1,145 @@
 #pragma once
 
+#include "irrt/debug.hpp"
+#include "irrt/exception.hpp"
 #include "irrt/int_types.hpp"
+#include "irrt/math_util.hpp"
+#include "irrt/range.hpp"
+
+namespace {
+namespace slice {
+/**
+ * @brief Resolve a possibly negative index in a list of a known length.
+ *
+ * Returns -1 if the resolved index is out of the list's bounds.
+ */
+template<typename T>
+T resolve_index_in_length(T length, T index) {
+    T resolved = index < 0 ? length + index : index;
+    if (0 <= resolved && resolved < length) {
+        return resolved;
+    } else {
+        return -1;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Resolve a slice as a range.
+ *
+ * This is equivalent to `range(*slice(start, stop, step).indices(length))` in Python.
+ */
+template<typename T>
+void indices(bool start_defined,
+             T start,
+             bool stop_defined,
+             T stop,
+             bool step_defined,
+             T step,
+             T length,
+             T* range_start,
+             T* range_stop,
+             T* range_step) {
+    // Reference: https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Objects/sliceobject.c#L388
+    *range_step = step_defined ? step : 1;
+    bool step_is_negative = *range_step < 0;
+
+    T lower, upper;
+    if (step_is_negative) {
+        lower = -1;
+        upper = length - 1;
+    } else {
+        lower = 0;
+        upper = length;
+    }
+
+    if (start_defined) {
+        *range_start = start < 0 ? max(lower, start + length) : min(upper, start);
+    } else {
+        *range_start = step_is_negative ? upper : lower;
+    }
+
+    if (stop_defined) {
+        *range_stop = stop < 0 ? max(lower, stop + length) : min(upper, stop);
+    } else {
+        *range_stop = step_is_negative ? lower : upper;
+    }
+}
+}  // namespace slice
+
+/**
+ * @brief A Python-like slice with **unresolved** indices.
+ */
+template<typename T>
+struct Slice {
+    bool start_defined;
+    T start;
+
+    bool stop_defined;
+    T stop;
+
+    bool step_defined;
+    T step;
+
+    Slice() { this->reset(); }
+
+    void reset() {
+        this->start_defined = false;
+        this->stop_defined = false;
+        this->step_defined = false;
+    }
+
+    void set_start(T start) {
+        this->start_defined = true;
+        this->start = start;
+    }
+
+    void set_stop(T stop) {
+        this->stop_defined = true;
+        this->stop = stop;
+    }
+
+    void set_step(T step) {
+        this->step_defined = true;
+        this->step = step;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Resolve this slice as a range.
+     *
+     * In Python, this would be `range(*slice(start, stop, step).indices(length))`.
+     */
+    template<typename SizeT>
+    Range<T> indices(T length) {
+        // Reference:
+        // https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Objects/sliceobject.c#L388
+        debug_assert(SizeT, length >= 0);
+
+        Range<T> result;
+        slice::indices(start_defined, start, stop_defined, stop, step_defined, step, length, &result.start,
+                       &result.stop, &result.step);
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Like `.indices()` but with assertions.
+     */
+    template<typename SizeT>
+    Range<T> indices_checked(T length) {
+        // TODO: Switch to `SizeT length`
+
+        if (length < 0) {
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "length should not be negative, got {0}", length, NO_PARAM,
+                            NO_PARAM);
+        }
+
+        if (this->step_defined && this->step == 0) {
+            raise_exception(SizeT, EXN_VALUE_ERROR, "slice step cannot be zero", NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM, NO_PARAM);
+        }
+
+        return this->indices<SizeT>(length);
+    }
+};
+}  // namespace
 
 extern "C" {
 SliceIndex __nac3_slice_index_bound(SliceIndex i, const SliceIndex len) {
@@ -14,15 +153,4 @@ SliceIndex __nac3_slice_index_bound(SliceIndex i, const SliceIndex len) {
     }
     return i;
 }
-
-SliceIndex __nac3_range_slice_len(const SliceIndex start, const SliceIndex end, const SliceIndex step) {
-    SliceIndex diff = end - start;
-    if (diff > 0 && step > 0) {
-        return ((diff - 1) / step) + 1;
-    } else if (diff < 0 && step < 0) {
-        return ((diff + 1) / step) + 1;
-    } else {
-        return 0;
-    }
-}
 }

nac3core/src/codegen/builtin_fns.rs

@@ -1,21 +1,33 @@
-use inkwell::types::BasicTypeEnum;
+use inkwell::{
-use inkwell::values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue};
+    types::BasicTypeEnum,
-use inkwell::{FloatPredicate, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel};
+    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    FloatPredicate, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
+};
 use itertools::Itertools;
 
-use crate::codegen::classes::{
+use super::{
-    ArrayLikeValue, NDArrayValue, ProxyValue, RangeValue, TypedArrayLikeAccessor,
+    model::*,
-    UntypedArrayLikeAccessor, UntypedArrayLikeMutator,
+    object::{any::AnyObject, list::ListObject, ndarray::NDArrayObject, tuple::TupleObject},
+};
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{
+        classes::{
+            NDArrayValue, ProxyValue, RangeValue, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor, UntypedArrayLikeMutator,
+        },
+        expr::destructure_range,
+        extern_fns, irrt,
+        irrt::calculate_len_for_slice_range,
+        llvm_intrinsics,
+        macros::codegen_unreachable,
+        numpy,
+        numpy::ndarray_elementwise_unaryop_impl,
+        stmt::gen_for_callback_incrementing,
+        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+    },
+    toplevel::helper::PrimDef,
+    toplevel::numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys,
+    typecheck::typedef::{Type, TypeEnum},
 };
-use crate::codegen::expr::destructure_range;
-use crate::codegen::irrt::calculate_len_for_slice_range;
-use crate::codegen::macros::codegen_unreachable;
-use crate::codegen::numpy::ndarray_elementwise_unaryop_impl;
-use crate::codegen::stmt::gen_for_callback_incrementing;
-use crate::codegen::{extern_fns, irrt, llvm_intrinsics, numpy, CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
-use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
-use crate::toplevel::numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys;
-use crate::typecheck::typedef::{Type, TypeEnum};
 
 /// Shorthand for [`unreachable!()`] when a type of argument is not supported.
 ///
@@ -34,58 +46,33 @@ pub fn call_len<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
     ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
     n: (Type, BasicValueEnum<'ctx>),
 ) -> Result<IntValue<'ctx>, String> {
-    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
-    let range_ty = ctx.primitives.range;
     let (arg_ty, arg) = n;
-
+    Ok(if ctx.unifier.unioned(arg_ty, ctx.primitives.range) {
-    Ok(if ctx.unifier.unioned(arg_ty, range_ty) {
         let arg = RangeValue::from_ptr_val(arg.into_pointer_value(), Some("range"));
         let (start, end, step) = destructure_range(ctx, arg);
         calculate_len_for_slice_range(generator, ctx, start, end, step)
     } else {
-        match &*ctx.unifier.get_ty_immutable(arg_ty) {
+        let arg = AnyObject { ty: arg_ty, value: arg };
-            TypeEnum::TTuple { ty, .. } => llvm_i32.const_int(ty.len() as u64, false),
+        let len: Instance<'ctx, Int<Int32>> = match &*ctx.unifier.get_ty(arg_ty) {
-            TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::List.id() => {
+            TypeEnum::TTuple { .. } => {
-                let zero = llvm_i32.const_zero();
+                let tuple = TupleObject::from_object(ctx, arg);
-                let len = ctx
+                tuple.len(generator, ctx).truncate_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, Int32)
-                    .build_gep_and_load(
-                        arg.into_pointer_value(),
-                        &[zero, llvm_i32.const_int(1, false)],
-                        None,
-                    )
-                    .into_int_value();
-                ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(len, llvm_i32, "len").unwrap()
             }
-            TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
+            TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. }
-                let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
+                if *obj_id == ctx.primitives.ndarray.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).unwrap() =>
-
+            {
-                let arg = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(arg.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None);
+                let ndarray = NDArrayObject::from_object(generator, ctx, arg);
-
+                ndarray.len(generator, ctx).truncate_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, Int32)
-                let ndims = arg.dim_sizes().size(ctx, generator);
+            }
-                ctx.make_assert(
+            TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. }
-                    generator,
+                if *obj_id == ctx.primitives.list.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).unwrap() =>
-                    ctx.builder
+            {
-                        .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::NE, ndims, llvm_usize.const_zero(), "")
+                let list = ListObject::from_object(generator, ctx, arg);
-                        .unwrap(),
+                list.len(generator, ctx).truncate_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, Int32)
-                    "0:TypeError",
+            }
-                    "len() of unsized object",
+            _ => unsupported_type(ctx, "len", &[arg_ty]),
-                    [None, None, None],
-                    ctx.current_loc,
-                );
-
-                let len = unsafe {
-                    arg.dim_sizes().get_typed_unchecked(
-                        ctx,
-                        generator,
-                        &llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-                        None,
-                    )
         };
-
+        len.value
-                ctx.builder.build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(len, llvm_i32, "len").unwrap()
-            }
-            _ => codegen_unreachable!(ctx),
-        }
     })
 }
 

nac3core/src/codegen/classes.rs

@@ -1,17 +1,16 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum, ArrayType, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType, StructType},
+    values::{ArrayValue, BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue},
+    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
+};
+
 use crate::codegen::{
     irrt::{call_ndarray_calc_size, call_ndarray_flatten_index},
     llvm_intrinsics::call_int_umin,
     stmt::gen_for_callback_incrementing,
     CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
 };
-use inkwell::context::Context;
-use inkwell::types::{ArrayType, BasicType, StructType};
-use inkwell::values::{ArrayValue, BasicValue, StructValue};
-use inkwell::{
-    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicTypeEnum, IntType, PointerType},
-    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
-    AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
-};
 
 /// A LLVM type that is used to represent a non-primitive type in NAC3.
 pub trait ProxyType<'ctx>: Into<Self::Base> {
@@ -1250,11 +1249,13 @@ impl<'ctx> NDArrayType<'ctx> {
 
     /// Returns the element type of this `ndarray` type.
     #[must_use]
-    pub fn element_type(&self) -> BasicTypeEnum<'ctx> {
+    pub fn element_type(&self) -> AnyTypeEnum<'ctx> {
         self.as_base_type()
             .get_element_type()
             .into_struct_type()
             .get_field_type_at_index(2)
+            .map(BasicTypeEnum::into_pointer_type)
+            .map(PointerType::get_element_type)
             .unwrap()
     }
 }

nac3core/src/codegen/concrete_type.rs

@@ -1,3 +1,9 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use indexmap::IndexMap;
+
+use nac3parser::ast::StrRef;
+
 use crate::{
     symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
     toplevel::DefinitionId,
@@ -9,10 +15,6 @@ use crate::{
     },
 };
 
-use indexmap::IndexMap;
-use nac3parser::ast::StrRef;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-
 pub struct ConcreteTypeStore {
     store: Vec<ConcreteTypeEnum>,
 }

nac3core/src/codegen/expr.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,32 @@
+use std::{
+    cmp::min,
+    collections::HashMap,
+    convert::TryInto,
+    iter::{once, repeat, repeat_with, zip},
+};
+
+use inkwell::{
+    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
+    types::{AnyType, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FunctionValue, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue},
+    AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
+};
+use itertools::{chain, izip, Either, Itertools};
+
+use nac3parser::ast::{
+    self, Boolop, Cmpop, Comprehension, Constant, Expr, ExprKind, Location, Operator, StrRef,
+    Unaryop,
+};
+
+use super::object::{
+    any::AnyObject,
+    ndarray::{indexing::util::gen_ndarray_subscript_ndindices, NDArrayObject},
+};
 use crate::{
     codegen::{
         classes::{
             ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ListType, ListValue, NDArrayValue, ProxyType,
-            ProxyValue, RangeValue, TypedArrayLikeAccessor, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
+            ProxyValue, RangeValue, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
         },
         concrete_type::{ConcreteFuncArg, ConcreteTypeEnum, ConcreteTypeStore},
         gen_in_range_check, get_llvm_abi_type, get_llvm_type, get_va_count_arg_name,
@@ -20,30 +44,12 @@ use crate::{
         CodeGenContext, CodeGenTask, CodeGenerator,
     },
     symbol_resolver::{SymbolValue, ValueEnum},
-    toplevel::{
+    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys, DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
-        helper::PrimDef,
-        numpy::{make_ndarray_ty, unpack_ndarray_var_tys},
-        DefinitionId, TopLevelDef,
-    },
     typecheck::{
         magic_methods::{Binop, BinopVariant, HasOpInfo},
         typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, TypeVarId, Unifier, VarMap},
     },
 };
-use inkwell::{
-    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
-    types::{AnyType, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
-    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FunctionValue, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue},
-    AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
-};
-use itertools::{chain, izip, Either, Itertools};
-use nac3parser::ast::{
-    self, Boolop, Cmpop, Comprehension, Constant, Expr, ExprKind, Location, Operator, StrRef,
-    Unaryop,
-};
-use std::cmp::min;
-use std::iter::{repeat, repeat_with};
-use std::{collections::HashMap, convert::TryInto, iter::once, iter::zip};
 
 pub fn get_subst_key(
     unifier: &mut Unifier,
@@ -551,7 +557,7 @@ impl<'ctx, 'a> CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a> {
                             && val_ty.get_element_type().is_struct_type()
                     } =>
                 {
-                    self.builder.build_bitcast(*val, arg_ty, "call_arg_cast").unwrap()
+                    self.builder.build_bit_cast(*val, arg_ty, "call_arg_cast").unwrap()
                 }
                 _ => *val,
             })
@@ -971,6 +977,7 @@ pub fn gen_call<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
             TopLevelDef::Class { .. } => {
                 return Ok(Some(generator.gen_constructor(ctx, fun.0, &def, params)?))
             }
+            TopLevelDef::Variable { .. } => unreachable!(),
         }
     }
     .or_else(|_: String| {
@@ -2498,338 +2505,6 @@ pub fn gen_cmpop_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
     )
 }
 
-/// Generates code for a subscript expression on an `ndarray`.
-///
-/// * `ty` - The `Type` of the `NDArray` elements.
-/// * `ndims` - The `Type` of the `NDArray` number-of-dimensions `Literal`.
-/// * `v` - The `NDArray` value.
-/// * `slice` - The slice expression used to subscript into the `ndarray`.
-fn gen_ndarray_subscript_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
-    generator: &mut G,
-    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    ty: Type,
-    ndims: Type,
-    v: NDArrayValue<'ctx>,
-    slice: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
-) -> Result<Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>>, String> {
-    let llvm_i1 = ctx.ctx.bool_type();
-    let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
-    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
-
-    let TypeEnum::TLiteral { values, .. } = &*ctx.unifier.get_ty_immutable(ndims) else {
-        codegen_unreachable!(ctx)
-    };
-
-    let ndims = values
-        .iter()
-        .map(|ndim| u64::try_from(ndim.clone()).map_err(|()| ndim.clone()))
-        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
-        .map_err(|val| {
-            format!(
-                "Expected non-negative literal for ndarray.ndims, got {}",
-                i128::try_from(val).unwrap()
-            )
-        })?;
-
-    assert!(!ndims.is_empty());
-
-    // The number of dimensions subscripted by the index expression.
-    // Slicing a ndarray will yield the same number of dimensions, whereas indexing into a
-    // dimension will remove a dimension.
-    let subscripted_dims = match &slice.node {
-        ExprKind::Tuple { elts, .. } => elts.iter().fold(0, |acc, value_subexpr| {
-            if let ExprKind::Slice { .. } = &value_subexpr.node {
-                acc
-            } else {
-                acc + 1
-            }
-        }),
-
-        ExprKind::Slice { .. } => 0,
-        _ => 1,
-    };
-
-    let ndarray_ndims_ty = ctx.unifier.get_fresh_literal(
-        ndims.iter().map(|v| SymbolValue::U64(v - subscripted_dims)).collect(),
-        None,
-    );
-    let ndarray_ty =
-        make_ndarray_ty(&mut ctx.unifier, &ctx.primitives, Some(ty), Some(ndarray_ndims_ty));
-    let llvm_pndarray_t = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, ndarray_ty).into_pointer_type();
-    let llvm_ndarray_t = llvm_pndarray_t.get_element_type().into_struct_type();
-    let llvm_ndarray_data_t = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, ty).as_basic_type_enum();
-    let sizeof_elem = llvm_ndarray_data_t.size_of().unwrap();
-
-    // Check that len is non-zero
-    let len = v.load_ndims(ctx);
-    ctx.make_assert(
-        generator,
-        ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SGT, len, llvm_usize.const_zero(), "").unwrap(),
-        "0:IndexError",
-        "too many indices for array: array is {0}-dimensional but 1 were indexed",
-        [Some(len), None, None],
-        slice.location,
-    );
-
-    // Normalizes a possibly-negative index to its corresponding positive index
-    let normalize_index = |generator: &mut G,
-                           ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-                           index: IntValue<'ctx>,
-                           dim: u64| {
-        gen_if_else_expr_callback(
-            generator,
-            ctx,
-            |_, ctx| {
-                Ok(ctx
-                    .builder
-                    .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::SGE, index, index.get_type().const_zero(), "")
-                    .unwrap())
-            },
-            |_, _| Ok(Some(index)),
-            |generator, ctx| {
-                let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
-
-                let len = unsafe {
-                    v.dim_sizes().get_typed_unchecked(
-                        ctx,
-                        generator,
-                        &llvm_usize.const_int(dim, true),
-                        None,
-                    )
-                };
-
-                let index = ctx
-                    .builder
-                    .build_int_add(
-                        len,
-                        ctx.builder.build_int_s_extend(index, llvm_usize, "").unwrap(),
-                        "",
-                    )
-                    .unwrap();
-
-                Ok(Some(ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(index, llvm_i32, "").unwrap()))
-            },
-        )
-        .map(|v| v.map(BasicValueEnum::into_int_value))
-    };
-
-    // Converts a slice expression into a slice-range tuple
-    let expr_to_slice = |generator: &mut G,
-                         ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-                         node: &ExprKind<Option<Type>>,
-                         dim: u64| {
-        match node {
-            ExprKind::Constant { value: Constant::Int(v), .. } => {
-                let Some(index) =
-                    normalize_index(generator, ctx, llvm_i32.const_int(*v as u64, true), dim)?
-                else {
-                    return Ok(None);
-                };
-
-                Ok(Some((index, index, llvm_i32.const_int(1, true))))
-            }
-
-            ExprKind::Slice { lower, upper, step } => {
-                let dim_sz = unsafe {
-                    v.dim_sizes().get_typed_unchecked(
-                        ctx,
-                        generator,
-                        &llvm_usize.const_int(dim, false),
-                        None,
-                    )
-                };
-
-                handle_slice_indices(lower, upper, step, ctx, generator, dim_sz)
-            }
-
-            _ => {
-                let Some(index) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, slice)? else { return Ok(None) };
-                let index = index
-                    .to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, slice.custom.unwrap())?
-                    .into_int_value();
-                let Some(index) = normalize_index(generator, ctx, index, dim)? else {
-                    return Ok(None);
-                };
-
-                Ok(Some((index, index, llvm_i32.const_int(1, true))))
-            }
-        }
-    };
-
-    let make_indices_arr = |generator: &mut G,
-                            ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>|
-     -> Result<_, String> {
-        Ok(if let ExprKind::Tuple { elts, .. } = &slice.node {
-            let llvm_int_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, elts[0].custom.unwrap());
-            let index_addr = generator.gen_array_var_alloc(
-                ctx,
-                llvm_int_ty,
-                llvm_usize.const_int(elts.len() as u64, false),
-                None,
-            )?;
-
-            for (i, elt) in elts.iter().enumerate() {
-                let Some(index) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, elt)? else {
-                    return Ok(None);
-                };
-
-                let index = index
-                    .to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, elt.custom.unwrap())?
-                    .into_int_value();
-                let Some(index) = normalize_index(generator, ctx, index, 0)? else {
-                    return Ok(None);
-                };
-
-                let store_ptr = unsafe {
-                    index_addr.ptr_offset_unchecked(
-                        ctx,
-                        generator,
-                        &llvm_usize.const_int(i as u64, false),
-                        None,
-                    )
-                };
-                ctx.builder.build_store(store_ptr, index).unwrap();
-            }
-
-            Some(index_addr)
-        } else if let Some(index) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, slice)? {
-            let llvm_int_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, slice.custom.unwrap());
-            let index_addr = generator.gen_array_var_alloc(
-                ctx,
-                llvm_int_ty,
-                llvm_usize.const_int(1u64, false),
-                None,
-            )?;
-
-            let index =
-                index.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, slice.custom.unwrap())?.into_int_value();
-            let Some(index) = normalize_index(generator, ctx, index, 0)? else { return Ok(None) };
-
-            let store_ptr = unsafe {
-                index_addr.ptr_offset_unchecked(ctx, generator, &llvm_usize.const_zero(), None)
-            };
-            ctx.builder.build_store(store_ptr, index).unwrap();
-
-            Some(index_addr)
-        } else {
-            None
-        })
-    };
-
-    Ok(Some(if ndims.len() == 1 && ndims[0] - subscripted_dims == 0 {
-        let Some(index_addr) = make_indices_arr(generator, ctx)? else { return Ok(None) };
-
-        v.data().get(ctx, generator, &index_addr, None).into()
-    } else {
-        match &slice.node {
-            ExprKind::Tuple { elts, .. } => {
-                let slices = elts
-                    .iter()
-                    .enumerate()
-                    .map(|(dim, elt)| expr_to_slice(generator, ctx, &elt.node, dim as u64))
-                    .take_while_inclusive(|slice| slice.as_ref().is_ok_and(Option::is_some))
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
-                if slices.len() < elts.len() {
-                    return Ok(None);
-                }
-
-                let slices = slices.into_iter().map(Option::unwrap).collect_vec();
-
-                numpy::ndarray_sliced_copy(generator, ctx, ty, v, &slices)?.as_base_value().into()
-            }
-
-            ExprKind::Slice { .. } => {
-                let Some(slice) = expr_to_slice(generator, ctx, &slice.node, 0)? else {
-                    return Ok(None);
-                };
-
-                numpy::ndarray_sliced_copy(generator, ctx, ty, v, &[slice])?.as_base_value().into()
-            }
-
-            _ => {
-                // Accessing an element from a multi-dimensional `ndarray`
-
-                let Some(index_addr) = make_indices_arr(generator, ctx)? else { return Ok(None) };
-
-                // Create a new array, remove the top dimension from the dimension-size-list, and copy the
-                // elements over
-                let subscripted_ndarray =
-                    generator.gen_var_alloc(ctx, llvm_ndarray_t.into(), None)?;
-                let ndarray = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(subscripted_ndarray, llvm_usize, None);
-
-                let num_dims = v.load_ndims(ctx);
-                ndarray.store_ndims(
-                    ctx,
-                    generator,
-                    ctx.builder
-                        .build_int_sub(num_dims, llvm_usize.const_int(1, false), "")
-                        .unwrap(),
-                );
-
-                let ndarray_num_dims = ndarray.load_ndims(ctx);
-                ndarray.create_dim_sizes(ctx, llvm_usize, ndarray_num_dims);
-
-                let ndarray_num_dims = ctx
-                    .builder
-                    .build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(
-                        ndarray.load_ndims(ctx),
-                        llvm_usize.size_of().get_type(),
-                        "",
-                    )
-                    .unwrap();
-                let v_dims_src_ptr = unsafe {
-                    v.dim_sizes().ptr_offset_unchecked(
-                        ctx,
-                        generator,
-                        &llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
-                        None,
-                    )
-                };
-                call_memcpy_generic(
-                    ctx,
-                    ndarray.dim_sizes().base_ptr(ctx, generator),
-                    v_dims_src_ptr,
-                    ctx.builder
-                        .build_int_mul(ndarray_num_dims, llvm_usize.size_of(), "")
-                        .map(Into::into)
-                        .unwrap(),
-                    llvm_i1.const_zero(),
-                );
-
-                let ndarray_num_elems = call_ndarray_calc_size(
-                    generator,
-                    ctx,
-                    &ndarray.dim_sizes().as_slice_value(ctx, generator),
-                    (None, None),
-                );
-                let ndarray_num_elems = ctx
-                    .builder
-                    .build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(ndarray_num_elems, sizeof_elem.get_type(), "")
-                    .unwrap();
-                ndarray.create_data(ctx, llvm_ndarray_data_t, ndarray_num_elems);
-
-                let v_data_src_ptr = v.data().ptr_offset(ctx, generator, &index_addr, None);
-                call_memcpy_generic(
-                    ctx,
-                    ndarray.data().base_ptr(ctx, generator),
-                    v_data_src_ptr,
-                    ctx.builder
-                        .build_int_mul(
-                            ndarray_num_elems,
-                            llvm_ndarray_data_t.size_of().unwrap(),
-                            "",
-                        )
-                        .map(Into::into)
-                        .unwrap(),
-                    llvm_i1.const_zero(),
-                );
-
-                ndarray.as_base_value().into()
-            }
-        }
-    }))
-}
-
 /// See [`CodeGenerator::gen_expr`].
 pub fn gen_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
     generator: &mut G,
@@ -2879,7 +2554,31 @@ pub fn gen_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
             Some((_, Some(static_value), _)) => ValueEnum::Static(static_value.clone()),
             None => {
                 let resolver = ctx.resolver.clone();
-                resolver.get_symbol_value(*id, ctx).unwrap()
+                let value = resolver.get_symbol_value(*id, ctx, generator).unwrap();
+
+                let globals = ctx
+                    .top_level
+                    .definitions
+                    .read()
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter_map(|def| {
+                        if let TopLevelDef::Variable { simple_name, ty, .. } = &*def.read() {
+                            Some((*simple_name, *ty))
+                        } else {
+                            None
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect_vec();
+
+                if let Some((_, ty)) = globals.iter().find(|(name, _)| name == id) {
+                    let ptr = value
+                        .to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, *ty)
+                        .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)?;
+
+                    ctx.builder.build_load(ptr, id.to_string().as_str()).map(Into::into).unwrap()
+                } else {
+                    value
+                }
             }
         },
         ExprKind::List { elts, .. } => {
@@ -3462,18 +3161,26 @@ pub fn gen_expr<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
                         v.data().get(ctx, generator, &index, None).into()
                     }
                 }
-                TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, params, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
+                TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
-                    let (ty, ndims) = params.iter().map(|(_, ty)| ty).collect_tuple().unwrap();
+                    let Some(ndarray) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, value)? else {
-
-                    let v = if let Some(v) = generator.gen_expr(ctx, value)? {
-                        v.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, value.custom.unwrap())?
-                            .into_pointer_value()
-                    } else {
                         return Ok(None);
                     };
-                    let v = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(v, usize, None);
 
-                    return gen_ndarray_subscript_expr(generator, ctx, *ty, *ndims, v, slice);
+                    let ndarray_ty = value.custom.unwrap();
+                    let ndarray = ndarray.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, ndarray_ty)?;
+
+                    let ndarray = NDArrayObject::from_object(
+                        generator,
+                        ctx,
+                        AnyObject { ty: ndarray_ty, value: ndarray },
+                    );
+
+                    let indices = gen_ndarray_subscript_ndindices(generator, ctx, slice)?;
+                    let result = ndarray
+                        .index(generator, ctx, &indices)
+                        .split_unsized(generator, ctx)
+                        .to_basic_value_enum();
+                    return Ok(Some(ValueEnum::Dynamic(result)));
                 }
                 TypeEnum::TTuple { .. } => {
                     let index: u32 =

nac3core/src/codegen/extern_fns.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
-use inkwell::attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc};
+use inkwell::{
-use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue};
+    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue},
+};
 use itertools::Either;
 
 use crate::codegen::CodeGenContext;

nac3core/src/codegen/generator.rs

@@ -1,15 +1,17 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
+};
+
+use nac3parser::ast::{Expr, Stmt, StrRef};
+
 use crate::{
     codegen::{bool_to_i1, bool_to_i8, classes::ArraySliceValue, expr::*, stmt::*, CodeGenContext},
     symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
     toplevel::{DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
     typecheck::typedef::{FunSignature, Type},
 };
-use inkwell::{
-    context::Context,
-    types::{BasicTypeEnum, IntType},
-    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
-};
-use nac3parser::ast::{Expr, Stmt, StrRef};
 
 pub trait CodeGenerator {
     /// Return the module name for the code generator.

nac3core/src/codegen/irrt/mod.rs

@@ -1,15 +1,3 @@
-use crate::{symbol_resolver::SymbolResolver, typecheck::typedef::Type};
-
-use super::{
-    classes::{
-        ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue, ListValue, NDArrayValue,
-        TypedArrayLikeAccessor, TypedArrayLikeAdapter, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
-    },
-    llvm_intrinsics,
-    macros::codegen_unreachable,
-    stmt::gen_for_callback_incrementing,
-    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
-};
 use inkwell::{
     attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
     context::Context,
@@ -20,8 +8,27 @@ use inkwell::{
     AddressSpace, IntPredicate,
 };
 use itertools::Either;
+
 use nac3parser::ast::Expr;
 
+use super::{
+    classes::{
+        ArrayLikeIndexer, ArrayLikeValue, ArraySliceValue, ListValue, NDArrayValue,
+        TypedArrayLikeAccessor, TypedArrayLikeAdapter, UntypedArrayLikeAccessor,
+    },
+    llvm_intrinsics,
+    macros::codegen_unreachable,
+    model::*,
+    object::{
+        list::List,
+        ndarray::{broadcast::ShapeEntry, indexing::NDIndex, nditer::NDIter, NDArray},
+    },
+    stmt::gen_for_callback_incrementing,
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+use crate::{symbol_resolver::SymbolResolver, typecheck::typedef::Type};
+use function::FnCall;
+
 #[must_use]
 pub fn load_irrt<'ctx>(ctx: &'ctx Context, symbol_resolver: &dyn SymbolResolver) -> Module<'ctx> {
     let bitcode_buf = MemoryBuffer::create_from_memory_range(
@@ -949,3 +956,268 @@ pub fn call_ndarray_calc_broadcast_index<
         Box::new(|_, v| v.into()),
     )
 }
+
+// When [`TypeContext::size_type`] is 32-bits, the function name is "{fn_name}".
+// When [`TypeContext::size_type`] is 64-bits, the function name is "{fn_name}64".
+#[must_use]
+pub fn get_sizet_dependent_function_name<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &CodeGenContext<'_, '_>,
+    name: &str,
+) -> String {
+    let mut name = name.to_owned();
+    match generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx).get_bit_width() {
+        32 => {}
+        64 => name.push_str("64"),
+        bit_width => {
+            panic!("Unsupported int type bit width {bit_width}, must be either 32-bits or 64-bits")
+        }
+    }
+    name
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndims: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(
+        generator,
+        ctx,
+        "__nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative",
+    );
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(ndims).arg(shape).returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray_ndims: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    ndarray_shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    output_ndims: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    output_shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(
+        generator,
+        ctx,
+        "__nac3_ndarray_util_assert_output_shape_same",
+    );
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name)
+        .arg(ndarray_ndims)
+        .arg(ndarray_shape)
+        .arg(output_ndims)
+        .arg(output_shape)
+        .returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_size<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_size");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(ndarray).returning_auto("size")
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_nbytes<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_nbytes");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(ndarray).returning_auto("nbytes")
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_len<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_len");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(ndarray).returning_auto("len")
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<Bool>> {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(ndarray).returning_auto("is_c_contiguous")
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+    index: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<Byte>>> {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(ndarray).arg(index).returning_auto("pelement")
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+    indices: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<Byte>>> {
+    let name =
+        get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(ndarray).arg(indices).returning_auto("pelement")
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+) {
+    let name =
+        get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(ndarray).returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_copy_data<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    src_ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+    dst_ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_copy_data");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(src_ndarray).arg(dst_ndarray).returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_nditer_initialize<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    iter: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDIter>>>,
+    ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+    indices: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_nditer_initialize");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(iter).arg(ndarray).arg(indices).returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_nditer_has_element<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    iter: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDIter>>>,
+) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<Bool>> {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_nditer_has_element");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(iter).returning_auto("has_element")
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_nditer_next<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    iter: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDIter>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_nditer_next");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(iter).returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_index<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    num_indices: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    indices: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDIndex>>>,
+    src_ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+    dst_ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_index");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name)
+        .arg(num_indices)
+        .arg(indices)
+        .arg(src_ndarray)
+        .arg(dst_ndarray)
+        .returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_array_set_and_validate_list_shape<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    list: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<List<Int<Byte>>>>>,
+    ndims: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(
+        generator,
+        ctx,
+        "__nac3_ndarray_array_set_and_validate_list_shape",
+    );
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(list).arg(ndims).arg(shape).returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_array_write_list_to_array<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    list: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<List<Int<Byte>>>>>,
+    ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(
+        generator,
+        ctx,
+        "__nac3_ndarray_array_write_list_to_array",
+    );
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(list).arg(ndarray).returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_reshape_resolve_and_check_new_shape<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    size: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    new_ndims: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    new_shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(
+        generator,
+        ctx,
+        "__nac3_ndarray_reshape_resolve_and_check_new_shape",
+    );
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(size).arg(new_ndims).arg(new_shape).returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_broadcast_to<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    src_ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+    dst_ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_broadcast_to");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name).arg(src_ndarray).arg(dst_ndarray).returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_broadcast_shapes<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    num_shape_entries: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    shape_entries: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<ShapeEntry>>>,
+    dst_ndims: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    dst_shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_broadcast_shapes");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name)
+        .arg(num_shape_entries)
+        .arg(shape_entries)
+        .arg(dst_ndims)
+        .arg(dst_shape)
+        .returning_void();
+}
+
+pub fn call_nac3_ndarray_transpose<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    src_ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+    dst_ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+    num_axes: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    axes: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+) {
+    let name = get_sizet_dependent_function_name(generator, ctx, "__nac3_ndarray_transpose");
+    FnCall::builder(generator, ctx, &name)
+        .arg(src_ndarray)
+        .arg(dst_ndarray)
+        .arg(num_axes)
+        .arg(axes)
+        .returning_void();
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/llvm_intrinsics.rs

@@ -1,12 +1,14 @@
-use crate::codegen::CodeGenContext;
+use inkwell::{
-use inkwell::context::Context;
+    context::Context,
-use inkwell::intrinsics::Intrinsic;
+    intrinsics::Intrinsic,
-use inkwell::types::AnyTypeEnum::IntType;
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum::IntType, FloatType},
-use inkwell::types::FloatType;
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue},
-use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue};
+    AddressSpace,
-use inkwell::AddressSpace;
+};
 use itertools::Either;
 
+use crate::codegen::CodeGenContext;
+
 /// Returns the string representation for the floating-point type `ft` when used in intrinsic
 /// functions.
 fn get_float_intrinsic_repr(ctx: &Context, ft: FloatType) -> &'static str {
@@ -183,7 +185,7 @@ pub fn call_memcpy_generic<'ctx>(
         dest
     } else {
         ctx.builder
-            .build_bitcast(dest, llvm_p0i8, "")
+            .build_bit_cast(dest, llvm_p0i8, "")
             .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
             .unwrap()
     };
@@ -191,7 +193,7 @@ pub fn call_memcpy_generic<'ctx>(
         src
     } else {
         ctx.builder
-            .build_bitcast(src, llvm_p0i8, "")
+            .build_bit_cast(src, llvm_p0i8, "")
             .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
             .unwrap()
     };

nac3core/src/codegen/mod.rs

@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
-use crate::{
+use std::{
-    codegen::classes::{ListType, NDArrayType, ProxyType, RangeType},
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-    symbol_resolver::{StaticValue, SymbolResolver},
+    sync::{
-    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef},
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
-    typecheck::{
+        Arc,
-        type_inferencer::{CodeLocation, PrimitiveStore},
-        typedef::{CallId, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier},
     },
+    thread,
 };
+
 use crossbeam::channel::{unbounded, Receiver, Sender};
 use inkwell::{
     attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
@@ -24,14 +24,21 @@ use inkwell::{
     AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
 };
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use nac3parser::ast::{Location, Stmt, StrRef};
 use parking_lot::{Condvar, Mutex};
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+
-use std::sync::{
+use nac3parser::ast::{Location, Stmt, StrRef};
-    atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+
-    Arc,
+use crate::{
+    codegen::classes::{ListType, ProxyType, RangeType},
+    symbol_resolver::{StaticValue, SymbolResolver},
+    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef},
+    typecheck::{
+        type_inferencer::{CodeLocation, PrimitiveStore},
+        typedef::{CallId, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier},
+    },
 };
-use std::thread;
+use model::*;
+use object::ndarray::NDArray;
 
 pub mod builtin_fns;
 pub mod classes;
@@ -41,7 +48,9 @@ pub mod extern_fns;
 mod generator;
 pub mod irrt;
 pub mod llvm_intrinsics;
+pub mod model;
 pub mod numpy;
+pub mod object;
 pub mod stmt;
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -505,12 +514,7 @@ fn get_llvm_type<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
                         }
 
                         TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
-                            let (dtype, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(unifier, ty);
+                            Ptr(Struct(NDArray)).llvm_type(generator, ctx).as_basic_type_enum()
-                            let element_type = get_llvm_type(
-                                ctx, module, generator, unifier, top_level, type_cache, dtype,
-                            );
-
-                            NDArrayType::new(generator, ctx, element_type).as_base_type().into()
                         }
 
                         _ => unreachable!(
@@ -848,10 +852,9 @@ pub fn gen_func_impl<
     builder.position_at_end(init_bb);
     let body_bb = context.append_basic_block(fn_val, "body");
 
+    // Store non-vararg argument values into local variables
     let mut var_assignment = HashMap::new();
     let offset = u32::from(has_sret);
-
-    // Store non-vararg argument values into local variables
     for (n, arg) in args.iter().enumerate().filter(|(_, arg)| !arg.is_vararg) {
         let param = fn_val.get_nth_param((n as u32) + offset).unwrap();
         let local_type = get_llvm_type(

nac3core/src/codegen/model/any.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
+    values::BasicValueEnum,
+};
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::codegen::CodeGenerator;
+
+/// A [`Model`] of any [`BasicTypeEnum`].
+///
+/// Use this when it is infeasible to use model abstractions.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct Any<'ctx>(pub BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>);
+
+impl<'ctx> Model<'ctx> for Any<'ctx> {
+    type Value = BasicValueEnum<'ctx>;
+    type Type = BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>;
+
+    fn llvm_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _generator: &G,
+        _ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Self::Type {
+        self.0
+    }
+
+    fn check_type<T: BasicType<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _generator: &mut G,
+        _ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        ty: T,
+    ) -> Result<(), ModelError> {
+        let ty = ty.as_basic_type_enum();
+        if ty == self.0 {
+            Ok(())
+        } else {
+            Err(ModelError(format!("Expecting {}, but got {}", self.0, ty)))
+        }
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/model/array.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+use std::fmt;
+
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{ArrayType, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
+    values::{ArrayValue, IntValue},
+};
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
+
+/// Trait for Rust structs identifying length values for [`Array`].
+pub trait ArrayLen: fmt::Debug + Clone + Copy {
+    fn length(&self) -> u32;
+}
+
+/// A statically known length.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Len<const N: u32>;
+
+/// A dynamically known length.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct AnyLen(pub u32);
+
+impl<const N: u32> ArrayLen for Len<N> {
+    fn length(&self) -> u32 {
+        N
+    }
+}
+
+impl ArrayLen for AnyLen {
+    fn length(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.0
+    }
+}
+
+/// A Model for an [`ArrayType`].
+///
+/// `Len` should be of a [`LenKind`] and `Item` should be a of [`Model`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Array<Len, Item> {
+    /// Length of this array.
+    pub len: Len,
+    /// [`Model`] of the array items.
+    pub item: Item,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, Len: ArrayLen, Item: Model<'ctx>> Model<'ctx> for Array<Len, Item> {
+    type Value = ArrayValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = ArrayType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn llvm_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Self::Type {
+        self.item.llvm_type(generator, ctx).array_type(self.len.length())
+    }
+
+    fn check_type<T: BasicType<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        ty: T,
+    ) -> Result<(), ModelError> {
+        let ty = ty.as_basic_type_enum();
+        let BasicTypeEnum::ArrayType(ty) = ty else {
+            return Err(ModelError(format!("Expecting ArrayType, but got {ty:?}")));
+        };
+
+        if ty.len() != self.len.length() {
+            return Err(ModelError(format!(
+                "Expecting ArrayType with size {}, but got an ArrayType with size {}",
+                ty.len(),
+                self.len.length()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        self.item
+            .check_type(generator, ctx, ty.get_element_type())
+            .map_err(|err| err.under_context("an ArrayType"))?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, Len: ArrayLen, Item: Model<'ctx>> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Array<Len, Item>>> {
+    /// Get the pointer to the `i`-th (0-based) array element.
+    pub fn gep(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        i: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Item>> {
+        let zero = ctx.ctx.i32_type().const_zero();
+        let ptr = unsafe { ctx.builder.build_in_bounds_gep(self.value, &[zero, i], "").unwrap() };
+
+        unsafe { Ptr(self.model.0.item).believe_value(ptr) }
+    }
+
+    /// Like `gep` but `i` is a constant.
+    pub fn gep_const(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, i: u64) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Item>> {
+        assert!(
+            i < u64::from(self.model.0.len.length()),
+            "Index {i} is out of bounds. Array length = {}",
+            self.model.0.len.length()
+        );
+
+        let i = ctx.ctx.i32_type().const_int(i, false);
+        self.gep(ctx, i)
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience function equivalent to `.gep(...).load(...)`.
+    pub fn get<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        i: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Item> {
+        self.gep(ctx, i).load(generator, ctx)
+    }
+
+    /// Like `get` but `i` is a constant.
+    pub fn get_const<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        i: u64,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Item> {
+        self.gep_const(ctx, i).load(generator, ctx)
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience function equivalent to `.gep(...).store(...)`.
+    pub fn set(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        i: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        value: Instance<'ctx, Item>,
+    ) {
+        self.gep(ctx, i).store(ctx, value);
+    }
+
+    /// Like `set` but `i` is a constant.
+    pub fn set_const(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, i: u64, value: Instance<'ctx, Item>) {
+        self.gep_const(ctx, i).store(ctx, value);
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/model/core.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,207 @@
+use std::fmt;
+
+use inkwell::{context::Context, types::*, values::*};
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
+
+/// A error type for reporting any [`Model`]-related error (e.g., a [`BasicType`] mismatch).
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ModelError(pub String);
+
+impl ModelError {
+    /// Append a context message to the error.
+    pub(super) fn under_context(mut self, context: &str) -> Self {
+        self.0.push_str(" ... in ");
+        self.0.push_str(context);
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+/// Trait for Rust structs identifying [`BasicType`]s in the context of a known [`CodeGenerator`] and [`CodeGenContext`].
+///
+/// For instance,
+/// - [`Int<Int32>`] identifies an [`IntType`] with 32-bits.
+/// - [`Int<SizeT>`] identifies an [`IntType`] with bit-width [`CodeGenerator::get_size_type`].
+/// - [`Ptr<Int<SizeT>>`] identifies a [`PointerType`] that points to an [`IntType`] with bit-width [`CodeGenerator::get_size_type`].
+/// - [`Int<AnyInt>`] identifies an [`IntType`] with bit-width of whatever is set in the [`AnyInt`] object.
+/// - [`Any`] identifies a [`BasicType`] set in the [`Any`] object itself.
+///
+/// You can get the [`BasicType`] out of a model with [`Model::get_type`].
+///
+/// Furthermore, [`Instance<'ctx, M>`] is a simple structure that carries a [`BasicValue`] with [`BasicType`] identified by model `M`.
+///
+/// The main purpose of this abstraction is to have a more Rust type-safe way to use Inkwell and give type-hints for programmers.
+///
+/// ### Notes on `Default` trait
+///
+/// For some models like [`Int<Int32>`] or [`Int<SizeT>`], they have a [`Default`] trait since just by looking at their types, it is possible
+/// to tell the [`BasicType`]s they are identifying.
+///
+/// This can be used to create strongly-typed interfaces accepting only values of a specific [`BasicType`] without having to worry about
+/// writing debug assertions to check, for example, if the programmer has passed in an [`IntValue`] with the wrong bit-width.
+/// ```ignore
+/// fn give_me_i32_and_get_a_size_t_back<'ctx>(i32: Instance<'ctx, Int<Int32>>) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+///     // code...
+/// }
+/// ```
+///
+/// ### Notes on converting between Inkwell and model/ge.
+///
+/// Suppose you have an [`IntValue`], and you want to pass it into a function that takes a [`Instance<'ctx, Int<Int32>>`]. You can do use
+/// [`Model::check_value`] or [`Model::believe_value`].
+/// ```ignore
+/// let my_value: IntValue<'ctx>;
+///
+/// let my_value = Int(Int32).check_value(my_value).unwrap(); // Panics if `my_value` is not 32-bit with a descriptive error message.
+///
+/// // or, if you are absolutely certain that `my_value` is 32-bit and doing extra checks is a waste of time:
+/// let my_value = Int(Int32).believe_value(my_value);
+/// ```
+pub trait Model<'ctx>: fmt::Debug + Clone + Copy {
+    /// The [`BasicType`] *variant* this model is identifying.
+    type Type: BasicType<'ctx>;
+
+    /// The [`BasicValue`] type of the [`BasicType`] of this model.
+    type Value: BasicValue<'ctx> + TryFrom<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>>;
+
+    /// Return the [`BasicType`] of this model.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn llvm_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(&self, generator: &G, ctx: &'ctx Context)
+        -> Self::Type;
+
+    /// Get the number of bytes of the [`BasicType`] of this model.
+    fn size_of<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> IntValue<'ctx> {
+        self.llvm_type(generator, ctx).size_of().unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Check if a [`BasicType`] matches the [`BasicType`] of this model.
+    fn check_type<T: BasicType<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        ty: T,
+    ) -> Result<(), ModelError>;
+
+    /// Create an instance from a value.
+    ///
+    /// # Safety
+    ///
+    /// Caller must make sure the type of `value` and the type of this `model` are equivalent.
+    #[must_use]
+    unsafe fn believe_value(&self, value: Self::Value) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        Instance { model: *self, value }
+    }
+
+    /// Check if a [`BasicValue`]'s type is equivalent to the type of this model.
+    /// Wrap the [`BasicValue`] into an [`Instance`] if it is.
+    fn check_value<V: BasicValue<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        value: V,
+    ) -> Result<Instance<'ctx, Self>, ModelError> {
+        let value = value.as_basic_value_enum();
+        self.check_type(generator, ctx, value.get_type())
+            .map_err(|err| err.under_context(format!("the value {value:?}").as_str()))?;
+
+        let Ok(value) = Self::Value::try_from(value) else {
+            unreachable!("check_type() has bad implementation")
+        };
+        unsafe { Ok(self.believe_value(value)) }
+    }
+
+    // Allocate a value on the stack and return its pointer.
+    fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Self>> {
+        let p = ctx.builder.build_alloca(self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx), "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { Ptr(*self).believe_value(p) }
+    }
+
+    // Allocate an array on the stack and return its pointer.
+    fn array_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        len: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Self>> {
+        let p =
+            ctx.builder.build_array_alloca(self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx), len, "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { Ptr(*self).believe_value(p) }
+    }
+
+    fn var_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        name: Option<&str>,
+    ) -> Result<Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Self>>, String> {
+        let ty = self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx).as_basic_type_enum();
+        let p = generator.gen_var_alloc(ctx, ty, name)?;
+        unsafe { Ok(Ptr(*self).believe_value(p)) }
+    }
+
+    fn array_var_alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        len: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        name: Option<&'ctx str>,
+    ) -> Result<Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Self>>, String> {
+        // TODO: Remove ArraySliceValue
+        let ty = self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx).as_basic_type_enum();
+        let p = generator.gen_array_var_alloc(ctx, ty, len, name)?;
+        unsafe { Ok(Ptr(*self).believe_value(PointerValue::from(p))) }
+    }
+
+    /// Allocate a constant array.
+    fn const_array<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        values: &[Instance<'ctx, Self>],
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Array<AnyLen, Self>> {
+        macro_rules! make {
+            ($t:expr, $into_value:expr) => {
+                $t.const_array(
+                    &values
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|x| $into_value(x.value.as_basic_value_enum()))
+                        .collect_vec(),
+                )
+            };
+        }
+
+        let value = match self.llvm_type(generator, ctx).as_basic_type_enum() {
+            BasicTypeEnum::ArrayType(t) => make!(t, BasicValueEnum::into_array_value),
+            BasicTypeEnum::IntType(t) => make!(t, BasicValueEnum::into_int_value),
+            BasicTypeEnum::FloatType(t) => make!(t, BasicValueEnum::into_float_value),
+            BasicTypeEnum::PointerType(t) => make!(t, BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value),
+            BasicTypeEnum::StructType(t) => make!(t, BasicValueEnum::into_struct_value),
+            BasicTypeEnum::VectorType(t) => make!(t, BasicValueEnum::into_vector_value),
+        };
+
+        Array { len: AnyLen(values.len() as u32), item: *self }
+            .check_value(generator, ctx, value)
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct Instance<'ctx, M: Model<'ctx>> {
+    /// The model of this instance.
+    pub model: M,
+
+    /// The value of this instance.
+    ///
+    /// It is guaranteed the [`BasicType`] of `value` is consistent with that of `model`.
+    pub value: M::Value,
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/model/float.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+use std::fmt;
+
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{BasicType, FloatType},
+    values::FloatValue,
+};
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::codegen::CodeGenerator;
+
+pub trait FloatKind<'ctx>: fmt::Debug + Clone + Copy {
+    fn get_float_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> FloatType<'ctx>;
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Float32;
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Float64;
+
+impl<'ctx> FloatKind<'ctx> for Float32 {
+    fn get_float_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> FloatType<'ctx> {
+        ctx.f32_type()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> FloatKind<'ctx> for Float64 {
+    fn get_float_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> FloatType<'ctx> {
+        ctx.f64_type()
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct AnyFloat<'ctx>(FloatType<'ctx>);
+
+impl<'ctx> FloatKind<'ctx> for AnyFloat<'ctx> {
+    fn get_float_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _generator: &G,
+        _ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> FloatType<'ctx> {
+        self.0
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Float<N>(pub N);
+
+impl<'ctx, N: FloatKind<'ctx>> Model<'ctx> for Float<N> {
+    type Value = FloatValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = FloatType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn llvm_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Self::Type {
+        self.0.get_float_type(generator, ctx)
+    }
+
+    fn check_type<T: BasicType<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        ty: T,
+    ) -> Result<(), ModelError> {
+        let ty = ty.as_basic_type_enum();
+        let Ok(ty) = FloatType::try_from(ty) else {
+            return Err(ModelError(format!("Expecting FloatType, but got {ty:?}")));
+        };
+
+        let exp_ty = self.0.get_float_type(generator, ctx);
+
+        // TODO: Inkwell does not have get_bit_width for FloatType?
+        if ty != exp_ty {
+            return Err(ModelError(format!("Expecting {exp_ty:?}, but got {ty:?}")));
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/model/function.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
+    types::{BasicMetadataTypeEnum, BasicType, FunctionType},
+    values::{AnyValue, BasicMetadataValueEnum, BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, CallSiteValue},
+};
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+struct Arg<'ctx> {
+    ty: BasicMetadataTypeEnum<'ctx>,
+    val: BasicMetadataValueEnum<'ctx>,
+}
+
+/// A convenience structure to construct & call an LLVM function.
+///
+/// ### Usage
+///
+/// The syntax is like this:
+/// ```ignore
+/// let result = CallFunction::begin("my_function_name")
+///   .attrs(...)
+///   .arg(arg1)
+///   .arg(arg2)
+///   .arg(arg3)
+///   .returning("my_function_result", Int32);
+/// ```
+///
+/// The function `my_function_name` is called when `.returning()` (or its variants) is called, returning
+/// the result as an `Instance<'ctx, Int<Int32>>`.
+///
+/// If `my_function_name` has not been declared in `ctx.module`, once `.returning()` is called, a function
+/// declaration of `my_function_name` is added to `ctx.module`, where the [`FunctionType`] is deduced from
+/// the argument types and returning type.
+pub struct FnCall<'ctx, 'a, 'b, 'c, 'd, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized> {
+    generator: &'d mut G,
+    ctx: &'b CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
+    /// Function name
+    name: &'c str,
+    /// Call arguments
+    args: Vec<Arg<'ctx>>,
+    /// LLVM function Attributes
+    attrs: Vec<&'static str>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, 'a, 'b, 'c, 'd, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized> FnCall<'ctx, 'a, 'b, 'c, 'd, G> {
+    pub fn builder(generator: &'d mut G, ctx: &'b CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>, name: &'c str) -> Self {
+        FnCall { generator, ctx, name, args: Vec::new(), attrs: Vec::new() }
+    }
+
+    /// Push a list of LLVM function attributes to the function declaration.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn attrs(mut self, attrs: Vec<&'static str>) -> Self {
+        self.attrs = attrs;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Push a call argument to the function call.
+    #[allow(clippy::needless_pass_by_value)]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn arg<M: Model<'ctx>>(mut self, arg: Instance<'ctx, M>) -> Self {
+        let arg = Arg {
+            ty: arg.model.llvm_type(self.generator, self.ctx.ctx).as_basic_type_enum().into(),
+            val: arg.value.as_basic_value_enum().into(),
+        };
+        self.args.push(arg);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Call the function and expect the function to return a value of type of `return_model`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn returning<M: Model<'ctx>>(self, name: &str, return_model: M) -> Instance<'ctx, M> {
+        let ret_ty = return_model.llvm_type(self.generator, self.ctx.ctx);
+
+        let ret = self.call(|tys| ret_ty.fn_type(tys, false), name);
+        let ret = BasicValueEnum::try_from(ret.as_any_value_enum()).unwrap(); // Must work
+        let ret = return_model.check_value(self.generator, self.ctx.ctx, ret).unwrap(); // Must work
+        ret
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`CallFunction::returning_`] but `return_model` is automatically inferred.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn returning_auto<M: Model<'ctx> + Default>(self, name: &str) -> Instance<'ctx, M> {
+        self.returning(name, M::default())
+    }
+
+    /// Call the function and expect the function to return a void-type.
+    pub fn returning_void(self) {
+        let ret_ty = self.ctx.ctx.void_type();
+
+        let _ = self.call(|tys| ret_ty.fn_type(tys, false), "");
+    }
+
+    fn call<F>(&self, make_fn_type: F, return_value_name: &str) -> CallSiteValue<'ctx>
+    where
+        F: FnOnce(&[BasicMetadataTypeEnum<'ctx>]) -> FunctionType<'ctx>,
+    {
+        // Get the LLVM function.
+        let func = self.ctx.module.get_function(self.name).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            // Declare the function if it doesn't exist.
+            let tys = self.args.iter().map(|arg| arg.ty).collect_vec();
+
+            let func_type = make_fn_type(&tys);
+            let func = self.ctx.module.add_function(self.name, func_type, None);
+
+            for attr in &self.attrs {
+                func.add_attribute(
+                    AttributeLoc::Function,
+                    self.ctx.ctx.create_enum_attribute(Attribute::get_named_enum_kind_id(attr), 0),
+                );
+            }
+
+            func
+        });
+
+        let vals = self.args.iter().map(|arg| arg.val).collect_vec();
+        self.ctx.builder.build_call(func, &vals, return_value_name).unwrap()
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/model/int.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,421 @@
+use std::{cmp::Ordering, fmt};
+
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{BasicType, IntType},
+    values::IntValue,
+    IntPredicate,
+};
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
+
+pub trait IntKind<'ctx>: fmt::Debug + Clone + Copy {
+    fn get_int_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> IntType<'ctx>;
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Bool;
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Byte;
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Int32;
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Int64;
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct SizeT;
+
+impl<'ctx> IntKind<'ctx> for Bool {
+    fn get_int_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        ctx.bool_type()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> IntKind<'ctx> for Byte {
+    fn get_int_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        ctx.i8_type()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> IntKind<'ctx> for Int32 {
+    fn get_int_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        ctx.i32_type()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> IntKind<'ctx> for Int64 {
+    fn get_int_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        ctx.i64_type()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> IntKind<'ctx> for SizeT {
+    fn get_int_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        generator.get_size_type(ctx)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct AnyInt<'ctx>(pub IntType<'ctx>);
+
+impl<'ctx> IntKind<'ctx> for AnyInt<'ctx> {
+    fn get_int_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        _generator: &G,
+        _ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> IntType<'ctx> {
+        self.0
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Int<N>(pub N);
+
+impl<'ctx, N: IntKind<'ctx>> Model<'ctx> for Int<N> {
+    type Value = IntValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = IntType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn llvm_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Self::Type {
+        self.0.get_int_type(generator, ctx)
+    }
+
+    fn check_type<T: BasicType<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        ty: T,
+    ) -> Result<(), ModelError> {
+        let ty = ty.as_basic_type_enum();
+        let Ok(ty) = IntType::try_from(ty) else {
+            return Err(ModelError(format!("Expecting IntType, but got {ty:?}")));
+        };
+
+        let exp_ty = self.0.get_int_type(generator, ctx);
+        if ty.get_bit_width() != exp_ty.get_bit_width() {
+            return Err(ModelError(format!(
+                "Expecting IntType to have {} bit(s), but got {} bit(s)",
+                exp_ty.get_bit_width(),
+                ty.get_bit_width()
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, N: IntKind<'ctx>> Int<N> {
+    pub fn const_int<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        value: u64,
+        sign_extend: bool,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        let value = self.llvm_type(generator, ctx).const_int(value, sign_extend);
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    pub fn const_0<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        let value = self.llvm_type(generator, ctx).const_zero();
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    pub fn const_1<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        self.const_int(generator, ctx, 1, false)
+    }
+
+    pub fn const_all_ones<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        let value = self.llvm_type(generator, ctx).const_all_ones();
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    pub fn s_extend_or_bit_cast<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        assert!(
+            value.get_type().get_bit_width()
+                <= self.0.get_int_type(generator, ctx.ctx).get_bit_width()
+        );
+        let value = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_int_s_extend_or_bit_cast(value, self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx), "")
+            .unwrap();
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    pub fn s_extend<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        assert!(
+            value.get_type().get_bit_width()
+                < self.0.get_int_type(generator, ctx.ctx).get_bit_width()
+        );
+        let value =
+            ctx.builder.build_int_s_extend(value, self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx), "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    pub fn z_extend_or_bit_cast<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        assert!(
+            value.get_type().get_bit_width()
+                <= self.0.get_int_type(generator, ctx.ctx).get_bit_width()
+        );
+        let value = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_int_z_extend_or_bit_cast(value, self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx), "")
+            .unwrap();
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    pub fn z_extend<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        assert!(
+            value.get_type().get_bit_width()
+                < self.0.get_int_type(generator, ctx.ctx).get_bit_width()
+        );
+        let value =
+            ctx.builder.build_int_z_extend(value, self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx), "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    pub fn truncate_or_bit_cast<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        assert!(
+            value.get_type().get_bit_width()
+                >= self.0.get_int_type(generator, ctx.ctx).get_bit_width()
+        );
+        let value = ctx
+            .builder
+            .build_int_truncate_or_bit_cast(value, self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx), "")
+            .unwrap();
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    pub fn truncate<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        assert!(
+            value.get_type().get_bit_width()
+                > self.0.get_int_type(generator, ctx.ctx).get_bit_width()
+        );
+        let value =
+            ctx.builder.build_int_truncate(value, self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx), "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    /// `sext` or `trunc` an int to this model's int type. Does nothing if equal bit-widths.
+    pub fn s_extend_or_truncate<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        let their_width = value.get_type().get_bit_width();
+        let our_width = self.0.get_int_type(generator, ctx.ctx).get_bit_width();
+        match their_width.cmp(&our_width) {
+            Ordering::Less => self.s_extend(generator, ctx, value),
+            Ordering::Equal => unsafe { self.believe_value(value) },
+            Ordering::Greater => self.truncate(generator, ctx, value),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// `zext` or `trunc` an int to this model's int type. Does nothing if equal bit-widths.
+    pub fn z_extend_or_truncate<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        let their_width = value.get_type().get_bit_width();
+        let our_width = self.0.get_int_type(generator, ctx.ctx).get_bit_width();
+        match their_width.cmp(&our_width) {
+            Ordering::Less => self.z_extend(generator, ctx, value),
+            Ordering::Equal => unsafe { self.believe_value(value) },
+            Ordering::Greater => self.truncate(generator, ctx, value),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Int<Bool> {
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn const_false<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        self.const_int(generator, ctx, 0, false)
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn const_true<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        self.const_int(generator, ctx, 1, false)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, N: IntKind<'ctx>> Instance<'ctx, Int<N>> {
+    pub fn s_extend_or_bit_cast<NewN: IntKind<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        to_int_kind: NewN,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<NewN>> {
+        Int(to_int_kind).s_extend_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, self.value)
+    }
+
+    pub fn s_extend<NewN: IntKind<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        to_int_kind: NewN,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<NewN>> {
+        Int(to_int_kind).s_extend(generator, ctx, self.value)
+    }
+
+    pub fn z_extend_or_bit_cast<NewN: IntKind<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        to_int_kind: NewN,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<NewN>> {
+        Int(to_int_kind).z_extend_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, self.value)
+    }
+
+    pub fn z_extend<NewN: IntKind<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        to_int_kind: NewN,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<NewN>> {
+        Int(to_int_kind).z_extend(generator, ctx, self.value)
+    }
+
+    pub fn truncate_or_bit_cast<NewN: IntKind<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        to_int_kind: NewN,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<NewN>> {
+        Int(to_int_kind).truncate_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, self.value)
+    }
+
+    pub fn truncate<NewN: IntKind<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        to_int_kind: NewN,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<NewN>> {
+        Int(to_int_kind).truncate(generator, ctx, self.value)
+    }
+
+    pub fn s_extend_or_truncate<NewN: IntKind<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        to_int_kind: NewN,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<NewN>> {
+        Int(to_int_kind).s_extend_or_truncate(generator, ctx, self.value)
+    }
+
+    pub fn z_extend_or_truncate<NewN: IntKind<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        to_int_kind: NewN,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<NewN>> {
+        Int(to_int_kind).z_extend_or_truncate(generator, ctx, self.value)
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn add(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, other: Self) -> Self {
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_int_add(self.value, other.value, "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { self.model.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn sub(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, other: Self) -> Self {
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_int_sub(self.value, other.value, "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { self.model.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn mul(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, other: Self) -> Self {
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_int_mul(self.value, other.value, "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { self.model.believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    pub fn compare(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        op: IntPredicate,
+        other: Self,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<Bool>> {
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_int_compare(op, self.value, other.value, "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { Int(Bool).believe_value(value) }
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/model/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+mod any;
+mod array;
+mod core;
+mod float;
+pub mod function;
+mod int;
+mod ptr;
+mod structure;
+pub mod util;
+
+pub use any::*;
+pub use array::*;
+pub use core::*;
+pub use float::*;
+pub use int::*;
+pub use ptr::*;
+pub use structure::*;

nac3core/src/codegen/model/ptr.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,222 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, PointerType},
+    values::{IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::codegen::{llvm_intrinsics::call_memcpy_generic, CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
+
+/// A model for [`PointerType`].
+///
+/// `Item` is the element type this pointer is pointing to, and should be of a [`Model`].
+///
+// TODO: LLVM 15: `Item` is a Rust type-hint for the LLVM type of value the `.store()/.load()` family
+// of functions return. If a truly opaque pointer is needed, tell the programmer to use `OpaquePtr`.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Ptr<Item>(pub Item);
+
+/// An opaque pointer. Like [`Ptr`] but without any Rust type-hints about its element type.
+///
+/// `.load()/.store()` is not available for [`Instance`]s of opaque pointers.
+pub type OpaquePtr = Ptr<()>;
+
+// TODO: LLVM 15: `Item: Model<'ctx>` don't even need to be a model anymore. It will only be
+// a type-hint for the `.load()/.store()` functions for the `pointee_ty`.
+//
+// See https://thedan64.github.io/inkwell/inkwell/builder/struct.Builder.html#method.build_load.
+impl<'ctx, Item: Model<'ctx>> Model<'ctx> for Ptr<Item> {
+    type Value = PointerValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = PointerType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn llvm_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Self::Type {
+        // TODO: LLVM 15: ctx.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
+        self.0.llvm_type(generator, ctx).ptr_type(AddressSpace::default())
+    }
+
+    fn check_type<T: BasicType<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        ty: T,
+    ) -> Result<(), ModelError> {
+        let ty = ty.as_basic_type_enum();
+        let Ok(ty) = PointerType::try_from(ty) else {
+            return Err(ModelError(format!("Expecting PointerType, but got {ty:?}")));
+        };
+
+        let elem_ty = ty.get_element_type();
+        let Ok(elem_ty) = BasicTypeEnum::try_from(elem_ty) else {
+            return Err(ModelError(format!(
+                "Expecting pointer element type to be a BasicTypeEnum, but got {elem_ty:?}"
+            )));
+        };
+
+        // TODO: inkwell `get_element_type()` will be deprecated.
+        // Remove the check for `get_element_type()` when the time comes.
+        self.0
+            .check_type(generator, ctx, elem_ty)
+            .map_err(|err| err.under_context("a PointerType"))?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, Item: Model<'ctx>> Ptr<Item> {
+    /// Return a ***constant*** nullptr.
+    pub fn nullptr<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Item>> {
+        let ptr = self.llvm_type(generator, ctx).const_null();
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(ptr) }
+    }
+
+    /// Cast a pointer into this model with [`inkwell::builder::Builder::build_pointer_cast`]
+    pub fn pointer_cast<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ptr: PointerValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Item>> {
+        // TODO: LLVM 15: Write in an impl where `Item` does not have to be `Model<'ctx>`.
+        // TODO: LLVM 15: This function will only have to be:
+        // ```
+        // return self.believe_value(ptr);
+        // ```
+        let t = self.llvm_type(generator, ctx.ctx);
+        let ptr = ctx.builder.build_pointer_cast(ptr, t, "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { self.believe_value(ptr) }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, Item: Model<'ctx>> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Item>> {
+    /// Offset the pointer by [`inkwell::builder::Builder::build_in_bounds_gep`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn offset(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        offset: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Item>> {
+        let p = unsafe { ctx.builder.build_in_bounds_gep(self.value, &[offset], "").unwrap() };
+        unsafe { self.model.believe_value(p) }
+    }
+
+    /// Offset the pointer by [`inkwell::builder::Builder::build_in_bounds_gep`] by a constant offset.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn offset_const(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        offset: i64,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Item>> {
+        let offset = ctx.ctx.i32_type().const_int(offset as u64, true);
+        self.offset(ctx, offset)
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_index(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        index: IntValue<'ctx>,
+        value: Instance<'ctx, Item>,
+    ) {
+        self.offset(ctx, index).store(ctx, value);
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_index_const(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        index: i64,
+        value: Instance<'ctx, Item>,
+    ) {
+        self.offset_const(ctx, index).store(ctx, value);
+    }
+
+    pub fn get_index<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        index: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Item> {
+        self.offset(ctx, index).load(generator, ctx)
+    }
+
+    pub fn get_index_const<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        index: i64,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Item> {
+        self.offset_const(ctx, index).load(generator, ctx)
+    }
+
+    /// Load the value with [`inkwell::builder::Builder::build_load`].
+    pub fn load<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Item> {
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_load(self.value, "").unwrap();
+        self.model.0.check_value(generator, ctx.ctx, value).unwrap() // If unwrap() panics, there is a logic error.
+    }
+
+    /// Store a value with [`inkwell::builder::Builder::build_store`].
+    pub fn store(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, value: Instance<'ctx, Item>) {
+        ctx.builder.build_store(self.value, value.value).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Return a casted pointer of element type `NewElement` with [`inkwell::builder::Builder::build_pointer_cast`].
+    pub fn pointer_cast<NewItem: Model<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        new_item: NewItem,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<NewItem>> {
+        // TODO: LLVM 15: Write in an impl where `Item` does not have to be `Model<'ctx>`.
+        Ptr(new_item).pointer_cast(generator, ctx, self.value)
+    }
+
+    /// Cast this pointer to `uint8_t*`
+    pub fn cast_to_pi8<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<Byte>>> {
+        Ptr(Int(Byte)).pointer_cast(generator, ctx, self.value)
+    }
+
+    /// Check if the pointer is null with [`inkwell::builder::Builder::build_is_null`].
+    pub fn is_null(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<Bool>> {
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_is_null(self.value, "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { Int(Bool).believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    /// Check if the pointer is not null with [`inkwell::builder::Builder::build_is_not_null`].
+    pub fn is_not_null(&self, ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<Bool>> {
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_is_not_null(self.value, "").unwrap();
+        unsafe { Int(Bool).believe_value(value) }
+    }
+
+    /// `memcpy` from another pointer.
+    pub fn copy_from<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        source: Self,
+        num_items: IntValue<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        // Force extend `num_items` and `itemsize` to `i64` so their types would match.
+        let itemsize = self.model.size_of(generator, ctx.ctx);
+        let itemsize = Int(SizeT).z_extend_or_truncate(generator, ctx, itemsize);
+        let num_items = Int(SizeT).z_extend_or_truncate(generator, ctx, num_items);
+        let totalsize = itemsize.mul(ctx, num_items);
+
+        let is_volatile = ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero(); // is_volatile = false
+        call_memcpy_generic(ctx, self.value, source.value, totalsize.value, is_volatile);
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/model/structure.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,363 @@
+use std::fmt;
+
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, StructType},
+    values::{BasicValueEnum, StructValue},
+};
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
+
+/// A traveral that traverses a Rust `struct` that is used to declare an LLVM's struct's field types.
+pub trait FieldTraversal<'ctx> {
+    /// Output type of [`FieldTraversal::add`].
+    type Output<M>;
+
+    /// Traverse through the type of a declared field and do something with it.
+    ///
+    /// * `name` - The cosmetic name of the LLVM field. Used for debugging.
+    /// * `model` - The [`Model`] representing the LLVM type of this field.
+    fn add<M: Model<'ctx>>(&mut self, name: &'static str, model: M) -> Self::Output<M>;
+
+    /// Like [`FieldTraversal::add`] but [`Model`] is automatically inferred from its [`Default`] trait.
+    fn add_auto<M: Model<'ctx> + Default>(&mut self, name: &'static str) -> Self::Output<M> {
+        self.add(name, M::default())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Descriptor of an LLVM struct field.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct GepField<M> {
+    /// The GEP index of this field. This is the index to use with `build_gep`.
+    pub gep_index: u32,
+    /// The cosmetic name of this field.
+    pub name: &'static str,
+    /// The [`Model`] of this field's type.
+    pub model: M,
+}
+
+/// A traversal to calculate the GEP index of fields.
+pub struct GepFieldTraversal {
+    /// The current GEP index.
+    gep_index_counter: u32,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> FieldTraversal<'ctx> for GepFieldTraversal {
+    type Output<M> = GepField<M>;
+
+    fn add<M: Model<'ctx>>(&mut self, name: &'static str, model: M) -> Self::Output<M> {
+        let gep_index = self.gep_index_counter;
+        self.gep_index_counter += 1;
+        Self::Output { gep_index, name, model }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A traversal to collect the field types of a struct.
+///
+/// This is used to collect field types and construct the LLVM struct type with [`Context::struct_type`].
+struct TypeFieldTraversal<'ctx, 'a, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized> {
+    generator: &'a G,
+    ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    /// The collected field types so far in exact order.
+    field_types: Vec<BasicTypeEnum<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, 'a, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized> FieldTraversal<'ctx> for TypeFieldTraversal<'ctx, 'a, G> {
+    type Output<M> = (); // Checking types return nothing.
+
+    fn add<M: Model<'ctx>>(&mut self, _name: &'static str, model: M) -> Self::Output<M> {
+        let t = model.llvm_type(self.generator, self.ctx).as_basic_type_enum();
+        self.field_types.push(t);
+    }
+}
+
+/// A traversal to check the types of fields.
+struct CheckTypeFieldTraversal<'ctx, 'a, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized> {
+    generator: &'a mut G,
+    ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    /// The current GEP index, so we can tell the index of the field we are checking
+    /// and report the GEP index.
+    gep_index_counter: u32,
+    /// The [`StructType`] to check.
+    scrutinee: StructType<'ctx>,
+    /// The list of collected errors so far.
+    errors: Vec<ModelError>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, 'a, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized> FieldTraversal<'ctx>
+    for CheckTypeFieldTraversal<'ctx, 'a, G>
+{
+    type Output<M> = (); // Checking types return nothing.
+
+    fn add<M: Model<'ctx>>(&mut self, name: &'static str, model: M) -> Self::Output<M> {
+        let gep_index = self.gep_index_counter;
+        self.gep_index_counter += 1;
+
+        if let Some(t) = self.scrutinee.get_field_type_at_index(gep_index) {
+            if let Err(err) = model.check_type(self.generator, self.ctx, t) {
+                self.errors
+                    .push(err.under_context(format!("field #{gep_index} '{name}'").as_str()));
+            }
+        }
+        // Otherwise, it will be caught by Struct's `check_type`.
+    }
+}
+
+/// A trait for Rust structs identifying LLVM structures.
+///
+/// ### Example
+///
+/// Suppose you want to define this structure:
+/// ```c
+/// template <typename T>
+/// struct ContiguousNDArray {
+///     size_t ndims;
+///     size_t* shape;
+///     T* data;
+/// }
+/// ```
+///
+/// This is how it should be done:
+/// ```ignore
+/// pub struct ContiguousNDArrayFields<'ctx, F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>, Item: Model<'ctx>> {
+///     pub ndims: F::Out<Int<SizeT>>,
+///     pub shape: F::Out<Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+///     pub data: F::Out<Ptr<Item>>,
+/// }
+///
+/// /// An ndarray without strides and non-opaque `data` field in NAC3.
+/// #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+/// pub struct ContiguousNDArray<M> {
+///     /// [`Model`] of the items.
+///     pub item: M,
+/// }
+///
+/// impl<'ctx, Item: Model<'ctx>> StructKind<'ctx> for ContiguousNDArray<Item> {
+///     type Fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> = ContiguousNDArrayFields<'ctx, F, Item>;
+///
+///     fn traverse_fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>>(&self, traversal: &mut F) -> Self::Fields<F> {
+///         // The order of `traversal.add*` is important
+///         Self::Fields {
+///             ndims: traversal.add_auto("ndims"),
+///             shape: traversal.add_auto("shape"),
+///             data: traversal.add("data", Ptr(self.item)),
+///         }
+///     }
+/// }
+/// ```
+///
+/// The [`FieldTraversal`] here is a mechanism to allow the fields of `ContiguousNDArrayFields` to be
+/// traversed to do useful work such as:
+///
+/// - To create the [`StructType`] of `ContiguousNDArray` by collecting [`BasicType`]s of the fields.
+/// - To enable the `.gep(ctx, |f| f.ndims).store(ctx, ...)` syntax.
+///
+/// Suppose now that you have defined `ContiguousNDArray` and you want to allocate a `ContiguousNDArray`
+/// with dtype `float64` in LLVM, this is how you do it:
+/// ```ignore
+/// type F64NDArray = Struct<ContiguousNDArray<Float<Float64>>>; // Type alias for leaner documentation
+/// let model: F64NDArray = Struct(ContigousNDArray { item: Float(Float64) });
+/// let ndarray: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<F64NDArray>> = model.alloca(generator, ctx);
+/// ```
+///
+/// ...and here is how you may manipulate/access `ndarray`:
+///
+/// (NOTE: some arguments have been omitted)
+///
+/// ```ignore
+/// // Get `&ndarray->data`
+/// ndarray.gep(|f| f.data); // type: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Float<Float64>>>
+///
+/// // Get `ndarray->ndims`
+/// ndarray.get(|f| f.ndims); // type: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>
+///
+/// // Get `&ndarray->ndims`
+/// ndarray.gep(|f| f.ndims); // type: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>
+///
+/// // Get `ndarray->shape[0]`
+/// ndarray.get(|f| f.shape).get_index_const(0); // Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>
+///
+/// // Get `&ndarray->shape[2]`
+/// ndarray.get(|f| f.shape).offset_const(2); // Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>
+///
+/// // Do `ndarray->ndims = 3;`
+/// let num_3 = Int(SizeT).const_int(3);
+/// ndarray.set(|f| f.ndims, num_3);
+/// ```
+pub trait StructKind<'ctx>: fmt::Debug + Clone + Copy {
+    /// The associated fields of this struct.
+    type Fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>>;
+
+    /// Traverse through all fields of this [`StructKind`].
+    ///
+    /// Only used internally in this module for implementing other components.
+    fn iter_fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>>(&self, traversal: &mut F) -> Self::Fields<F>;
+
+    /// Get a convenience structure to get a struct field's GEP index through its corresponding Rust field.
+    ///
+    /// Only used internally in this module for implementing other components.
+    fn fields(&self) -> Self::Fields<GepFieldTraversal> {
+        self.iter_fields(&mut GepFieldTraversal { gep_index_counter: 0 })
+    }
+
+    /// Get the LLVM [`StructType`] of this [`StructKind`].
+    fn get_struct_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> StructType<'ctx> {
+        let mut traversal = TypeFieldTraversal { generator, ctx, field_types: Vec::new() };
+        self.iter_fields(&mut traversal);
+
+        ctx.struct_type(&traversal.field_types, false)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A model for LLVM struct.
+///
+/// `S` should be of a [`StructKind`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct Struct<S>(pub S);
+
+impl<'ctx, S: StructKind<'ctx>> Struct<S> {
+    /// Create a constant struct value from its fields.
+    ///
+    /// This function also validates `fields` and panic when there is something wrong.
+    pub fn const_struct<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        fields: &[BasicValueEnum<'ctx>],
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Self> {
+        // NOTE: There *could* have been a functor `F<M> = Instance<'ctx, M>` for `S::Fields<F>`
+        // to create a more user-friendly interface, but Rust's type system is not sophisticated enough
+        // and if you try doing that Rust would force you put lifetimes everywhere.
+        let val = ctx.const_struct(fields, false);
+        self.check_value(generator, ctx, val).unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, S: StructKind<'ctx>> Model<'ctx> for Struct<S> {
+    type Value = StructValue<'ctx>;
+    type Type = StructType<'ctx>;
+
+    fn llvm_type<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Self::Type {
+        self.0.get_struct_type(generator, ctx)
+    }
+
+    fn check_type<T: BasicType<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        ty: T,
+    ) -> Result<(), ModelError> {
+        let ty = ty.as_basic_type_enum();
+        let Ok(ty) = StructType::try_from(ty) else {
+            return Err(ModelError(format!("Expecting StructType, but got {ty:?}")));
+        };
+
+        // Check each field individually.
+        let mut traversal = CheckTypeFieldTraversal {
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            gep_index_counter: 0,
+            errors: Vec::new(),
+            scrutinee: ty,
+        };
+        self.0.iter_fields(&mut traversal);
+
+        // Check the number of fields.
+        let exp_num_fields = traversal.gep_index_counter;
+        let got_num_fields = u32::try_from(ty.get_field_types().len()).unwrap();
+        if exp_num_fields != got_num_fields {
+            return Err(ModelError(format!(
+                "Expecting StructType with {exp_num_fields} field(s), but got {got_num_fields}"
+            )));
+        }
+
+        if !traversal.errors.is_empty() {
+            // Currently, only the first error is reported.
+            return Err(traversal.errors[0].clone());
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, S: StructKind<'ctx>> Instance<'ctx, Struct<S>> {
+    /// Get a field with [`StructValue::get_field_at_index`].
+    pub fn get_field<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized, M, GetField>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+        get_field: GetField,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, M>
+    where
+        M: Model<'ctx>,
+        GetField: FnOnce(S::Fields<GepFieldTraversal>) -> GepField<M>,
+    {
+        let field = get_field(self.model.0.fields());
+        let val = self.value.get_field_at_index(field.gep_index).unwrap();
+        field.model.check_value(generator, ctx, val).unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, S: StructKind<'ctx>> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<S>>> {
+    /// Get a pointer to a field with [`Builder::build_in_bounds_gep`].
+    pub fn gep<M, GetField>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        get_field: GetField,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<M>>
+    where
+        M: Model<'ctx>,
+        GetField: FnOnce(S::Fields<GepFieldTraversal>) -> GepField<M>,
+    {
+        let field = get_field(self.model.0 .0.fields());
+        let llvm_i32 = ctx.ctx.i32_type();
+
+        let ptr = unsafe {
+            ctx.builder
+                .build_in_bounds_gep(
+                    self.value,
+                    &[llvm_i32.const_zero(), llvm_i32.const_int(u64::from(field.gep_index), false)],
+                    field.name,
+                )
+                .unwrap()
+        };
+
+        unsafe { Ptr(field.model).believe_value(ptr) }
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience function equivalent to `.gep(...).load(...)`.
+    pub fn get<M, GetField, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        get_field: GetField,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, M>
+    where
+        M: Model<'ctx>,
+        GetField: FnOnce(S::Fields<GepFieldTraversal>) -> GepField<M>,
+    {
+        self.gep(ctx, get_field).load(generator, ctx)
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience function equivalent to `.gep(...).store(...)`.
+    pub fn set<M, GetField>(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        get_field: GetField,
+        value: Instance<'ctx, M>,
+    ) where
+        M: Model<'ctx>,
+        GetField: FnOnce(S::Fields<GepFieldTraversal>) -> GepField<M>,
+    {
+        self.gep(ctx, get_field).store(ctx, value);
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/model/util.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+use super::*;
+use crate::codegen::{
+    stmt::{gen_for_callback_incrementing, BreakContinueHooks},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+/// Like [`gen_for_callback_incrementing`] with [`Model`] abstractions.
+///
+/// The value for `stop` is exclusive.
+pub fn gen_for_model<'ctx, 'a, G, F, N>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
+    start: Instance<'ctx, Int<N>>,
+    stop: Instance<'ctx, Int<N>>,
+    step: Instance<'ctx, Int<N>>,
+    body: F,
+) -> Result<(), String>
+where
+    G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
+    F: FnOnce(
+        &mut G,
+        &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
+        BreakContinueHooks<'ctx>,
+        Instance<'ctx, Int<N>>,
+    ) -> Result<(), String>,
+    N: IntKind<'ctx> + Default,
+{
+    let int_model = Int(N::default());
+    gen_for_callback_incrementing(
+        generator,
+        ctx,
+        None,
+        start.value,
+        (stop.value, false),
+        |g, ctx, hooks, i| {
+            let i = unsafe { int_model.believe_value(i) };
+            body(g, ctx, hooks, i)
+        },
+        step.value,
+    )
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/numpy.rs

@@ -1,3 +1,11 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicType, BasicTypeEnum, PointerType},
+    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
+};
+
+use nac3parser::ast::{Operator, StrRef};
+
 use crate::{
     codegen::{
         classes::{
@@ -13,30 +21,25 @@ use crate::{
         },
         llvm_intrinsics::{self, call_memcpy_generic},
         macros::codegen_unreachable,
+        model::*,
+        object::{
+            any::AnyObject,
+            ndarray::{shape_util::parse_numpy_int_sequence, NDArrayObject},
+        },
         stmt::{gen_for_callback_incrementing, gen_for_range_callback, gen_if_else_expr_callback},
         CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
     },
     symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
     toplevel::{
-        helper::PrimDef,
+        helper::extract_ndims,
         numpy::{make_ndarray_ty, unpack_ndarray_var_tys},
         DefinitionId,
     },
     typecheck::{
         magic_methods::Binop,
-        typedef::{FunSignature, Type, TypeEnum},
+        typedef::{FunSignature, Type},
     },
 };
-use inkwell::{
-    types::BasicType,
-    values::{BasicValueEnum, IntValue, PointerValue},
-    AddressSpace, IntPredicate, OptimizationLevel,
-};
-use inkwell::{
-    types::{AnyTypeEnum, BasicTypeEnum, PointerType},
-    values::BasicValue,
-};
-use nac3parser::ast::{Operator, StrRef};
 
 /// Creates an uninitialized `NDArray` instance.
 fn create_ndarray_uninitialized<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
@@ -942,7 +945,7 @@ fn call_ndarray_array_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
                         .build_store(
                             lst,
                             ctx.builder
-                                .build_bitcast(object.as_base_value(), llvm_plist_i8, "")
+                                .build_bit_cast(object.as_base_value(), llvm_plist_i8, "")
                                 .unwrap(),
                         )
                         .unwrap();
@@ -964,7 +967,7 @@ fn call_ndarray_array_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
                                 .builder
                                 .build_load(lst, "")
                                 .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
-                                .map(|v| ctx.builder.build_bitcast(v, plist_plist_i8, "").unwrap())
+                                .map(|v| ctx.builder.build_bit_cast(v, plist_plist_i8, "").unwrap())
                                 .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
                                 .unwrap();
                             let this_dim = ListValue::from_ptr_val(this_dim, llvm_usize, None);
@@ -983,7 +986,9 @@ fn call_ndarray_array_impl<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
                             ctx.builder
                                 .build_store(
                                     lst,
-                                    ctx.builder.build_bitcast(next_dim, llvm_plist_i8, "").unwrap(),
+                                    ctx.builder
+                                        .build_bit_cast(next_dim, llvm_plist_i8, "")
+                                        .unwrap(),
                                 )
                                 .unwrap();
 
@@ -1743,8 +1748,13 @@ pub fn gen_ndarray_empty<'ctx>(
     let shape_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
     let shape_arg = args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, shape_ty)?;
 
-    call_ndarray_empty_impl(generator, context, context.primitives.float, shape_arg)
+    let (dtype, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut context.unifier, fun.0.ret);
-        .map(NDArrayValue::into)
+    let ndims = extract_ndims(&context.unifier, ndims);
+
+    let shape = AnyObject { value: shape_arg, ty: shape_ty };
+    let (_, shape) = parse_numpy_int_sequence(generator, context, shape);
+    let ndarray = NDArrayObject::make_np_empty(generator, context, dtype, ndims, shape);
+    Ok(ndarray.instance.value)
 }
 
 /// Generates LLVM IR for `ndarray.zeros`.
@@ -1761,8 +1771,13 @@ pub fn gen_ndarray_zeros<'ctx>(
     let shape_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
     let shape_arg = args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, shape_ty)?;
 
-    call_ndarray_zeros_impl(generator, context, context.primitives.float, shape_arg)
+    let (dtype, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut context.unifier, fun.0.ret);
-        .map(NDArrayValue::into)
+    let ndims = extract_ndims(&context.unifier, ndims);
+
+    let shape = AnyObject { value: shape_arg, ty: shape_ty };
+    let (_, shape) = parse_numpy_int_sequence(generator, context, shape);
+    let ndarray = NDArrayObject::make_np_zeros(generator, context, dtype, ndims, shape);
+    Ok(ndarray.instance.value)
 }
 
 /// Generates LLVM IR for `ndarray.ones`.
@@ -1779,8 +1794,13 @@ pub fn gen_ndarray_ones<'ctx>(
     let shape_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
     let shape_arg = args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, shape_ty)?;
 
-    call_ndarray_ones_impl(generator, context, context.primitives.float, shape_arg)
+    let (dtype, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut context.unifier, fun.0.ret);
-        .map(NDArrayValue::into)
+    let ndims = extract_ndims(&context.unifier, ndims);
+
+    let shape = AnyObject { value: shape_arg, ty: shape_ty };
+    let (_, shape) = parse_numpy_int_sequence(generator, context, shape);
+    let ndarray = NDArrayObject::make_np_ones(generator, context, dtype, ndims, shape);
+    Ok(ndarray.instance.value)
 }
 
 /// Generates LLVM IR for `ndarray.full`.
@@ -1800,8 +1820,14 @@ pub fn gen_ndarray_full<'ctx>(
     let fill_value_arg =
         args[1].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, fill_value_ty)?;
 
-    call_ndarray_full_impl(generator, context, fill_value_ty, shape_arg, fill_value_arg)
+    let (dtype, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut context.unifier, fun.0.ret);
-        .map(NDArrayValue::into)
+    let ndims = extract_ndims(&context.unifier, ndims);
+
+    let shape = AnyObject { value: shape_arg, ty: shape_ty };
+    let (_, shape) = parse_numpy_int_sequence(generator, context, shape);
+    let ndarray =
+        NDArrayObject::make_np_full(generator, context, dtype, ndims, shape, fill_value_arg);
+    Ok(ndarray.instance.value)
 }
 
 pub fn gen_ndarray_array<'ctx>(
@@ -1815,26 +1841,6 @@ pub fn gen_ndarray_array<'ctx>(
     assert!(matches!(args.len(), 1..=3));
 
     let obj_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
-    let obj_elem_ty = match &*context.unifier.get_ty(obj_ty) {
-        TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::NDArray.id() => {
-            unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut context.unifier, obj_ty).0
-        }
-
-        TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, params, .. } if *obj_id == PrimDef::List.id() => {
-            let mut ty = *params.iter().next().unwrap().1;
-            while let TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, params, .. } = &*context.unifier.get_ty_immutable(ty)
-            {
-                if *obj_id != PrimDef::List.id() {
-                    break;
-                }
-
-                ty = *params.iter().next().unwrap().1;
-            }
-            ty
-        }
-
-        _ => obj_ty,
-    };
     let obj_arg = args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, obj_ty)?;
 
     let copy_arg = if let Some(arg) =
@@ -1850,28 +1856,18 @@ pub fn gen_ndarray_array<'ctx>(
         )
     };
 
-    let ndmin_arg = if let Some(arg) =
+    // The ndmin argument is ignored. We can simply force the ndarray's number of dimensions to be
-        args.iter().find(|arg| arg.0.is_some_and(|name| name == fun.0.args[2].name))
+    // the `ndims` of the function return type.
-    {
+    let (_, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut context.unifier, fun.0.ret);
-        let ndmin_ty = fun.0.args[2].ty;
+    let ndims = extract_ndims(&context.unifier, ndims);
-        arg.1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, ndmin_ty)?
-    } else {
-        context.gen_symbol_val(
-            generator,
-            fun.0.args[2].default_value.as_ref().unwrap(),
-            fun.0.args[2].ty,
-        )
-    };
 
-    call_ndarray_array_impl(
+    let object = AnyObject { value: obj_arg, ty: obj_ty };
-        generator,
+    // NAC3 booleans are i8.
-        context,
+    let copy = Int(Bool).truncate(generator, context, copy_arg.into_int_value());
-        obj_elem_ty,
+    let ndarray = NDArrayObject::make_np_array(generator, context, object, copy)
-        obj_arg,
+        .atleast_nd(generator, context, ndims);
-        copy_arg.into_int_value(),
+
-        ndmin_arg.into_int_value(),
+    Ok(ndarray.instance.value)
-    )
-    .map(NDArrayValue::into)
 }
 
 /// Generates LLVM IR for `ndarray.eye`.
@@ -1910,15 +1906,23 @@ pub fn gen_ndarray_eye<'ctx>(
         ))
     }?;
 
-    call_ndarray_eye_impl(
+    let (dtype, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut context.unifier, fun.0.ret);
-        generator,
+
-        context,
+    let nrows = Int(Int32)
-        context.primitives.float,
+        .check_value(generator, context.ctx, nrows_arg)
-        nrows_arg.into_int_value(),
+        .unwrap()
-        ncols_arg.into_int_value(),
+        .s_extend_or_bit_cast(generator, context, SizeT);
-        offset_arg.into_int_value(),
+    let ncols = Int(Int32)
-    )
+        .check_value(generator, context.ctx, ncols_arg)
-    .map(NDArrayValue::into)
+        .unwrap()
+        .s_extend_or_bit_cast(generator, context, SizeT);
+    let offset = Int(Int32)
+        .check_value(generator, context.ctx, offset_arg)
+        .unwrap()
+        .s_extend_or_bit_cast(generator, context, SizeT);
+
+    let ndarray = NDArrayObject::make_np_eye(generator, context, dtype, nrows, ncols, offset);
+    Ok(ndarray.instance.value)
 }
 
 /// Generates LLVM IR for `ndarray.identity`.
@@ -1932,20 +1936,15 @@ pub fn gen_ndarray_identity<'ctx>(
     assert!(obj.is_none());
     assert_eq!(args.len(), 1);
 
-    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(context.ctx);
+    let (dtype, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut context.unifier, fun.0.ret);
 
     let n_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
     let n_arg = args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, n_ty)?;
 
-    call_ndarray_eye_impl(
+    let n = Int(Int32).check_value(generator, context.ctx, n_arg).unwrap();
-        generator,
+    let n = n.s_extend_or_bit_cast(generator, context, SizeT);
-        context,
+    let ndarray = NDArrayObject::make_np_identity(generator, context, dtype, n);
-        context.primitives.float,
+    Ok(ndarray.instance.value)
-        n_arg.into_int_value(),
-        n_arg.into_int_value(),
-        llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-    )
-    .map(NDArrayValue::into)
 }
 
 /// Generates LLVM IR for `ndarray.copy`.
@@ -1959,20 +1958,14 @@ pub fn gen_ndarray_copy<'ctx>(
     assert!(obj.is_some());
     assert!(args.is_empty());
 
-    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(context.ctx);
-
     let this_ty = obj.as_ref().unwrap().0;
-    let (this_elem_ty, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut context.unifier, this_ty);
     let this_arg =
         obj.as_ref().unwrap().1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, this_ty)?;
 
-    ndarray_copy_impl(
+    let this = AnyObject { value: this_arg, ty: this_ty };
-        generator,
+    let this = NDArrayObject::from_object(generator, context, this);
-        context,
+    let ndarray = this.make_copy(generator, context);
-        this_elem_ty,
+    Ok(ndarray.instance.value)
-        NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(this_arg.into_pointer_value(), llvm_usize, None),
-    )
-    .map(NDArrayValue::into)
 }
 
 /// Generates LLVM IR for `ndarray.fill`.
@@ -1986,445 +1979,18 @@ pub fn gen_ndarray_fill<'ctx>(
     assert!(obj.is_some());
     assert_eq!(args.len(), 1);
 
-    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(context.ctx);
-
     let this_ty = obj.as_ref().unwrap().0;
-    let this_arg = obj
+    let this_arg =
-        .as_ref()
+        obj.as_ref().unwrap().1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, this_ty)?;
-        .unwrap()
-        .1
-        .clone()
-        .to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, this_ty)?
-        .into_pointer_value();
     let value_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
     let value_arg = args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(context, generator, value_ty)?;
 
-    ndarray_fill_flattened(
+    let this = AnyObject { value: this_arg, ty: this_ty };
-        generator,
+    let this = NDArrayObject::from_object(generator, context, this);
-        context,
+    this.fill(generator, context, value_arg);
-        NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(this_arg, llvm_usize, None),
-        |generator, ctx, _| {
-            let value = if value_arg.is_pointer_value() {
-                let llvm_i1 = ctx.ctx.bool_type();
-
-                let copy = generator.gen_var_alloc(ctx, value_arg.get_type(), None)?;
-
-                call_memcpy_generic(
-                    ctx,
-                    copy,
-                    value_arg.into_pointer_value(),
-                    value_arg.get_type().size_of().map(Into::into).unwrap(),
-                    llvm_i1.const_zero(),
-                );
-
-                copy.into()
-            } else if value_arg.is_int_value() || value_arg.is_float_value() {
-                value_arg
-            } else {
-                codegen_unreachable!(ctx)
-            };
-
-            Ok(value)
-        },
-    )?;
-
     Ok(())
 }
 
-/// Generates LLVM IR for `ndarray.transpose`.
-pub fn ndarray_transpose<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
-    generator: &mut G,
-    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    x1: (Type, BasicValueEnum<'ctx>),
-) -> Result<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>, String> {
-    const FN_NAME: &str = "ndarray_transpose";
-    let (x1_ty, x1) = x1;
-    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
-
-    if let BasicValueEnum::PointerValue(n1) = x1 {
-        let (elem_ty, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, x1_ty);
-        let n1 = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(n1, llvm_usize, None);
-        let n_sz = call_ndarray_calc_size(generator, ctx, &n1.dim_sizes(), (None, None));
-
-        // Dimensions are reversed in the transposed array
-        let out = create_ndarray_dyn_shape(
-            generator,
-            ctx,
-            elem_ty,
-            &n1,
-            |_, ctx, n| Ok(n.load_ndims(ctx)),
-            |generator, ctx, n, idx| {
-                let new_idx = ctx.builder.build_int_sub(n.load_ndims(ctx), idx, "").unwrap();
-                let new_idx = ctx
-                    .builder
-                    .build_int_sub(new_idx, new_idx.get_type().const_int(1, false), "")
-                    .unwrap();
-                unsafe { Ok(n.dim_sizes().get_typed_unchecked(ctx, generator, &new_idx, None)) }
-            },
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-
-        gen_for_callback_incrementing(
-            generator,
-            ctx,
-            None,
-            llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-            (n_sz, false),
-            |generator, ctx, _, idx| {
-                let elem = unsafe { n1.data().get_unchecked(ctx, generator, &idx, None) };
-
-                let new_idx = generator.gen_var_alloc(ctx, llvm_usize.into(), None)?;
-                let rem_idx = generator.gen_var_alloc(ctx, llvm_usize.into(), None)?;
-                ctx.builder.build_store(new_idx, llvm_usize.const_zero()).unwrap();
-                ctx.builder.build_store(rem_idx, idx).unwrap();
-
-                // Incrementally calculate the new index in the transposed array
-                // For each index, we first decompose it into the n-dims and use those to reconstruct the new index
-                // The formula used for indexing is:
-                // idx = dim_n * ( ... (dim2 * (dim0 * dim1) + dim1) + dim2 ... ) + dim_n
-                gen_for_callback_incrementing(
-                    generator,
-                    ctx,
-                    None,
-                    llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-                    (n1.load_ndims(ctx), false),
-                    |generator, ctx, _, ndim| {
-                        let ndim_rev =
-                            ctx.builder.build_int_sub(n1.load_ndims(ctx), ndim, "").unwrap();
-                        let ndim_rev = ctx
-                            .builder
-                            .build_int_sub(ndim_rev, llvm_usize.const_int(1, false), "")
-                            .unwrap();
-                        let dim = unsafe {
-                            n1.dim_sizes().get_typed_unchecked(ctx, generator, &ndim_rev, None)
-                        };
-
-                        let rem_idx_val =
-                            ctx.builder.build_load(rem_idx, "").unwrap().into_int_value();
-                        let new_idx_val =
-                            ctx.builder.build_load(new_idx, "").unwrap().into_int_value();
-
-                        let add_component =
-                            ctx.builder.build_int_unsigned_rem(rem_idx_val, dim, "").unwrap();
-                        let rem_idx_val =
-                            ctx.builder.build_int_unsigned_div(rem_idx_val, dim, "").unwrap();
-
-                        let new_idx_val = ctx.builder.build_int_mul(new_idx_val, dim, "").unwrap();
-                        let new_idx_val =
-                            ctx.builder.build_int_add(new_idx_val, add_component, "").unwrap();
-
-                        ctx.builder.build_store(rem_idx, rem_idx_val).unwrap();
-                        ctx.builder.build_store(new_idx, new_idx_val).unwrap();
-
-                        Ok(())
-                    },
-                    llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
-                )?;
-
-                let new_idx_val = ctx.builder.build_load(new_idx, "").unwrap().into_int_value();
-                unsafe { out.data().set_unchecked(ctx, generator, &new_idx_val, elem) };
-                Ok(())
-            },
-            llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
-        )?;
-
-        Ok(out.as_base_value().into())
-    } else {
-        codegen_unreachable!(
-            ctx,
-            "{FN_NAME}() not supported for '{}'",
-            format!("'{}'", ctx.unifier.stringify(x1_ty))
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-/// LLVM-typed implementation for generating the implementation for `ndarray.reshape`.
-///
-/// * `x1` - `NDArray` to reshape.
-/// * `shape` - The `shape` parameter used to construct the new `NDArray`.
-///   Just like numpy, the `shape` argument can be:
-///   1. A list of `int32`;   e.g., `np.reshape(arr, [600, -1, 3])`
-///   2. A tuple of `int32`;  e.g., `np.reshape(arr, (-1, 800, 3))`
-///   3. A scalar `int32`;     e.g., `np.reshape(arr, 3)`
-///
-/// Note that unlike other generating functions, one of the dimensions in the shape can be negative.
-pub fn ndarray_reshape<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
-    generator: &mut G,
-    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
-    x1: (Type, BasicValueEnum<'ctx>),
-    shape: (Type, BasicValueEnum<'ctx>),
-) -> Result<BasicValueEnum<'ctx>, String> {
-    const FN_NAME: &str = "ndarray_reshape";
-    let (x1_ty, x1) = x1;
-    let (_, shape) = shape;
-
-    let llvm_usize = generator.get_size_type(ctx.ctx);
-
-    if let BasicValueEnum::PointerValue(n1) = x1 {
-        let (elem_ty, _) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, x1_ty);
-        let n1 = NDArrayValue::from_ptr_val(n1, llvm_usize, None);
-        let n_sz = call_ndarray_calc_size(generator, ctx, &n1.dim_sizes(), (None, None));
-
-        let acc = generator.gen_var_alloc(ctx, llvm_usize.into(), None)?;
-        let num_neg = generator.gen_var_alloc(ctx, llvm_usize.into(), None)?;
-        ctx.builder.build_store(acc, llvm_usize.const_int(1, false)).unwrap();
-        ctx.builder.build_store(num_neg, llvm_usize.const_zero()).unwrap();
-
-        let out = match shape {
-            BasicValueEnum::PointerValue(shape_list_ptr)
-                if ListValue::is_instance(shape_list_ptr, llvm_usize).is_ok() =>
-            {
-                // 1. A list of ints; e.g., `np.reshape(arr, [int64(600), int64(800, -1])`
-
-                let shape_list = ListValue::from_ptr_val(shape_list_ptr, llvm_usize, None);
-                // Check for -1 in dimensions
-                gen_for_callback_incrementing(
-                    generator,
-                    ctx,
-                    None,
-                    llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-                    (shape_list.load_size(ctx, None), false),
-                    |generator, ctx, _, idx| {
-                        let ele =
-                            shape_list.data().get(ctx, generator, &idx, None).into_int_value();
-                        let ele = ctx.builder.build_int_s_extend(ele, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
-
-                        gen_if_else_expr_callback(
-                            generator,
-                            ctx,
-                            |_, ctx| {
-                                Ok(ctx
-                                    .builder
-                                    .build_int_compare(
-                                        IntPredicate::SLT,
-                                        ele,
-                                        llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-                                        "",
-                                    )
-                                    .unwrap())
-                            },
-                            |_, ctx| -> Result<Option<IntValue>, String> {
-                                let num_neg_value =
-                                    ctx.builder.build_load(num_neg, "").unwrap().into_int_value();
-                                let num_neg_value = ctx
-                                    .builder
-                                    .build_int_add(
-                                        num_neg_value,
-                                        llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
-                                        "",
-                                    )
-                                    .unwrap();
-                                ctx.builder.build_store(num_neg, num_neg_value).unwrap();
-                                Ok(None)
-                            },
-                            |_, ctx| {
-                                let acc_value =
-                                    ctx.builder.build_load(acc, "").unwrap().into_int_value();
-                                let acc_value =
-                                    ctx.builder.build_int_mul(acc_value, ele, "").unwrap();
-                                ctx.builder.build_store(acc, acc_value).unwrap();
-                                Ok(None)
-                            },
-                        )?;
-                        Ok(())
-                    },
-                    llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
-                )?;
-                let acc_val = ctx.builder.build_load(acc, "").unwrap().into_int_value();
-                let rem = ctx.builder.build_int_unsigned_div(n_sz, acc_val, "").unwrap();
-                // Generate the output shape by filling -1 with `rem`
-                create_ndarray_dyn_shape(
-                    generator,
-                    ctx,
-                    elem_ty,
-                    &shape_list,
-                    |_, ctx, _| Ok(shape_list.load_size(ctx, None)),
-                    |generator, ctx, shape_list, idx| {
-                        let dim =
-                            shape_list.data().get(ctx, generator, &idx, None).into_int_value();
-                        let dim = ctx.builder.build_int_s_extend(dim, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
-
-                        Ok(gen_if_else_expr_callback(
-                            generator,
-                            ctx,
-                            |_, ctx| {
-                                Ok(ctx
-                                    .builder
-                                    .build_int_compare(
-                                        IntPredicate::SLT,
-                                        dim,
-                                        llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-                                        "",
-                                    )
-                                    .unwrap())
-                            },
-                            |_, _| Ok(Some(rem)),
-                            |_, _| Ok(Some(dim)),
-                        )?
-                        .unwrap()
-                        .into_int_value())
-                    },
-                )
-            }
-            BasicValueEnum::StructValue(shape_tuple) => {
-                // 2. A tuple of `int32`;  e.g., `np.reshape(arr, (-1, 800, 3))`
-
-                let ndims = shape_tuple.get_type().count_fields();
-                // Check for -1 in dims
-                for dim_i in 0..ndims {
-                    let dim = ctx
-                        .builder
-                        .build_extract_value(shape_tuple, dim_i, "")
-                        .unwrap()
-                        .into_int_value();
-                    let dim = ctx.builder.build_int_s_extend(dim, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
-
-                    gen_if_else_expr_callback(
-                        generator,
-                        ctx,
-                        |_, ctx| {
-                            Ok(ctx
-                                .builder
-                                .build_int_compare(
-                                    IntPredicate::SLT,
-                                    dim,
-                                    llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-                                    "",
-                                )
-                                .unwrap())
-                        },
-                        |_, ctx| -> Result<Option<IntValue>, String> {
-                            let num_negs =
-                                ctx.builder.build_load(num_neg, "").unwrap().into_int_value();
-                            let num_negs = ctx
-                                .builder
-                                .build_int_add(num_negs, llvm_usize.const_int(1, false), "")
-                                .unwrap();
-                            ctx.builder.build_store(num_neg, num_negs).unwrap();
-                            Ok(None)
-                        },
-                        |_, ctx| {
-                            let acc_val = ctx.builder.build_load(acc, "").unwrap().into_int_value();
-                            let acc_val = ctx.builder.build_int_mul(acc_val, dim, "").unwrap();
-                            ctx.builder.build_store(acc, acc_val).unwrap();
-                            Ok(None)
-                        },
-                    )?;
-                }
-
-                let acc_val = ctx.builder.build_load(acc, "").unwrap().into_int_value();
-                let rem = ctx.builder.build_int_unsigned_div(n_sz, acc_val, "").unwrap();
-                let mut shape = Vec::with_capacity(ndims as usize);
-
-                // Reconstruct shape filling negatives with rem
-                for dim_i in 0..ndims {
-                    let dim = ctx
-                        .builder
-                        .build_extract_value(shape_tuple, dim_i, "")
-                        .unwrap()
-                        .into_int_value();
-                    let dim = ctx.builder.build_int_s_extend(dim, llvm_usize, "").unwrap();
-
-                    let dim = gen_if_else_expr_callback(
-                        generator,
-                        ctx,
-                        |_, ctx| {
-                            Ok(ctx
-                                .builder
-                                .build_int_compare(
-                                    IntPredicate::SLT,
-                                    dim,
-                                    llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-                                    "",
-                                )
-                                .unwrap())
-                        },
-                        |_, _| Ok(Some(rem)),
-                        |_, _| Ok(Some(dim)),
-                    )?
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .into_int_value();
-                    shape.push(dim);
-                }
-                create_ndarray_const_shape(generator, ctx, elem_ty, shape.as_slice())
-            }
-            BasicValueEnum::IntValue(shape_int) => {
-                // 3. A scalar `int32`;     e.g., `np.reshape(arr, 3)`
-                let shape_int = gen_if_else_expr_callback(
-                    generator,
-                    ctx,
-                    |_, ctx| {
-                        Ok(ctx
-                            .builder
-                            .build_int_compare(
-                                IntPredicate::SLT,
-                                shape_int,
-                                llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-                                "",
-                            )
-                            .unwrap())
-                    },
-                    |_, _| Ok(Some(n_sz)),
-                    |_, ctx| {
-                        Ok(Some(ctx.builder.build_int_s_extend(shape_int, llvm_usize, "").unwrap()))
-                    },
-                )?
-                .unwrap()
-                .into_int_value();
-                create_ndarray_const_shape(generator, ctx, elem_ty, &[shape_int])
-            }
-            _ => codegen_unreachable!(ctx),
-        }
-        .unwrap();
-
-        // Only allow one dimension to be negative
-        let num_negs = ctx.builder.build_load(num_neg, "").unwrap().into_int_value();
-        ctx.make_assert(
-            generator,
-            ctx.builder
-                .build_int_compare(IntPredicate::ULT, num_negs, llvm_usize.const_int(2, false), "")
-                .unwrap(),
-            "0:ValueError",
-            "can only specify one unknown dimension",
-            [None, None, None],
-            ctx.current_loc,
-        );
-
-        // The new shape must be compatible with the old shape
-        let out_sz = call_ndarray_calc_size(generator, ctx, &out.dim_sizes(), (None, None));
-        ctx.make_assert(
-            generator,
-            ctx.builder.build_int_compare(IntPredicate::EQ, out_sz, n_sz, "").unwrap(),
-            "0:ValueError",
-            "cannot reshape array of size {0} into provided shape of size {1}",
-            [Some(n_sz), Some(out_sz), None],
-            ctx.current_loc,
-        );
-
-        gen_for_callback_incrementing(
-            generator,
-            ctx,
-            None,
-            llvm_usize.const_zero(),
-            (n_sz, false),
-            |generator, ctx, _, idx| {
-                let elem = unsafe { n1.data().get_unchecked(ctx, generator, &idx, None) };
-                unsafe { out.data().set_unchecked(ctx, generator, &idx, elem) };
-                Ok(())
-            },
-            llvm_usize.const_int(1, false),
-        )?;
-
-        Ok(out.as_base_value().into())
-    } else {
-        codegen_unreachable!(
-            ctx,
-            "{FN_NAME}() not supported for '{}'",
-            format!("'{}'", ctx.unifier.stringify(x1_ty))
-        )
-    }
-}
-
 /// Generates LLVM IR for `ndarray.dot`.
 /// Calculate inner product of two vectors or literals
 /// For matrix multiplication use `np_matmul`

nac3core/src/codegen/object/any.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+use inkwell::values::BasicValueEnum;
+
+use crate::typecheck::typedef::Type;
+
+/// A NAC3 LLVM Python object of any type.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct AnyObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Typechecker type of the object.
+    pub ty: Type,
+    /// LLVM value of the object.
+    pub value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/list.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
+use super::any::AnyObject;
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{model::*, CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    typecheck::typedef::{iter_type_vars, Type, TypeEnum},
+};
+
+/// Fields of [`List`]
+pub struct ListFields<'ctx, F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>, Item: Model<'ctx>> {
+    /// Array pointer to content
+    pub items: F::Output<Ptr<Item>>,
+    /// Number of items in the array
+    pub len: F::Output<Int<SizeT>>,
+}
+
+/// A list in NAC3.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct List<Item> {
+    /// Model of the list items
+    pub item: Item,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, Item: Model<'ctx>> StructKind<'ctx> for List<Item> {
+    type Fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> = ListFields<'ctx, F, Item>;
+
+    fn iter_fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>>(&self, traversal: &mut F) -> Self::Fields<F> {
+        Self::Fields {
+            items: traversal.add("items", Ptr(self.item)),
+            len: traversal.add_auto("len"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, Item: Model<'ctx>> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<List<Item>>>> {
+    /// Cast the items pointer to `uint8_t*`.
+    pub fn with_pi8_items<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<List<Int<Byte>>>>> {
+        self.pointer_cast(generator, ctx, Struct(List { item: Int(Byte) }))
+    }
+}
+
+/// A NAC3 Python List object.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct ListObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Typechecker type of the list items
+    pub item_type: Type,
+    pub instance: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<List<Any<'ctx>>>>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ListObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Create a [`ListObject`] from an LLVM value and its typechecker [`Type`].
+    pub fn from_object<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        object: AnyObject<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // Check typechecker type and extract `item_type`
+        let item_type = match &*ctx.unifier.get_ty(object.ty) {
+            TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, params, .. }
+                if *obj_id == ctx.primitives.list.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).unwrap() =>
+            {
+                iter_type_vars(params).next().unwrap().ty // Extract `item_type`
+            }
+            _ => {
+                panic!("Expecting type to be a list, but got {}", ctx.unifier.stringify(object.ty))
+            }
+        };
+
+        let plist = Ptr(Struct(List { item: Any(ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, item_type)) }));
+
+        // Create object
+        let value = plist.check_value(generator, ctx.ctx, object.value).unwrap();
+        ListObject { item_type, instance: value }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `len()` of this list.
+    pub fn len<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+        self.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.len)
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+pub mod any;
+pub mod list;
+pub mod ndarray;
+pub mod tuple;
+pub mod utils;

nac3core/src/codegen/object/ndarray/array.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,184 @@
+use super::NDArrayObject;
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{
+        irrt::{
+            call_nac3_ndarray_array_set_and_validate_list_shape,
+            call_nac3_ndarray_array_write_list_to_array,
+        },
+        model::*,
+        object::{any::AnyObject, list::ListObject},
+        stmt::gen_if_else_expr_callback,
+        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+    },
+    toplevel::helper::{arraylike_flatten_element_type, arraylike_get_ndims},
+    typecheck::typedef::{Type, TypeEnum},
+};
+
+/// Get the expected `dtype` and `ndims` of the ndarray returned by `np_array(list)`.
+fn get_list_object_dtype_and_ndims<'ctx>(
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    list: ListObject<'ctx>,
+) -> (Type, u64) {
+    let dtype = arraylike_flatten_element_type(&mut ctx.unifier, list.item_type);
+
+    let ndims = arraylike_get_ndims(&mut ctx.unifier, list.item_type);
+    let ndims = ndims + 1; // To count `list` itself.
+
+    (dtype, ndims)
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Implementation of `np_array(<list>, copy=True)`
+    fn make_np_array_list_copy_true_impl<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        list: ListObject<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let (dtype, ndims_int) = get_list_object_dtype_and_ndims(ctx, list);
+        let list_value = list.instance.with_pi8_items(generator, ctx);
+
+        // Validate `list` has a consistent shape.
+        // Raise an exception if `list` is something abnormal like `[[1, 2], [3]]`.
+        // If `list` has a consistent shape, deduce the shape and write it to `shape`.
+        let ndims = Int(SizeT).const_int(generator, ctx.ctx, ndims_int, false);
+        let shape = Int(SizeT).array_alloca(generator, ctx, ndims.value);
+        call_nac3_ndarray_array_set_and_validate_list_shape(
+            generator, ctx, list_value, ndims, shape,
+        );
+
+        let ndarray = NDArrayObject::alloca(generator, ctx, dtype, ndims_int);
+        ndarray.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, shape);
+        ndarray.create_data(generator, ctx);
+
+        // Copy all contents from the list.
+        call_nac3_ndarray_array_write_list_to_array(generator, ctx, list_value, ndarray.instance);
+
+        ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Implementation of `np_array(<list>, copy=None)`
+    fn make_np_array_list_copy_none_impl<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        list: ListObject<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // np_array without copying is only possible `list` is not nested.
+        //
+        // If `list` is `list[T]`, we can create an ndarray with `data` set
+        // to the array pointer of `list`.
+        //
+        // If `list` is `list[list[T]]` or worse, copy.
+
+        let (dtype, ndims) = get_list_object_dtype_and_ndims(ctx, list);
+        if ndims == 1 {
+            // `list` is not nested
+            let ndarray = NDArrayObject::alloca(generator, ctx, dtype, 1);
+
+            // Set data
+            let data = list.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.items).cast_to_pi8(generator, ctx);
+            ndarray.instance.set(ctx, |f| f.data, data);
+
+            // ndarray->shape[0] = list->len;
+            let shape = ndarray.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.shape);
+            let list_len = list.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.len);
+            shape.set_index_const(ctx, 0, list_len);
+
+            // Set strides, the `data` is contiguous
+            ndarray.set_strides_contiguous(generator, ctx);
+
+            ndarray
+        } else {
+            // `list` is nested, copy
+            NDArrayObject::make_np_array_list_copy_true_impl(generator, ctx, list)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Implementation of `np_array(<list>, copy=copy)`
+    fn make_np_array_list_impl<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        list: ListObject<'ctx>,
+        copy: Instance<'ctx, Int<Bool>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let (dtype, ndims) = get_list_object_dtype_and_ndims(ctx, list);
+
+        let ndarray = gen_if_else_expr_callback(
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            |_generator, _ctx| Ok(copy.value),
+            |generator, ctx| {
+                let ndarray =
+                    NDArrayObject::make_np_array_list_copy_true_impl(generator, ctx, list);
+                Ok(Some(ndarray.instance.value))
+            },
+            |generator, ctx| {
+                let ndarray =
+                    NDArrayObject::make_np_array_list_copy_none_impl(generator, ctx, list);
+                Ok(Some(ndarray.instance.value))
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+
+        NDArrayObject::from_value_and_unpacked_types(generator, ctx, ndarray, dtype, ndims)
+    }
+
+    /// Implementation of `np_array(<ndarray>, copy=copy)`.
+    pub fn make_np_array_ndarray_impl<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ndarray: NDArrayObject<'ctx>,
+        copy: Instance<'ctx, Int<Bool>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let ndarray_val = gen_if_else_expr_callback(
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            |_generator, _ctx| Ok(copy.value),
+            |generator, ctx| {
+                let ndarray = ndarray.make_copy(generator, ctx); // Force copy
+                Ok(Some(ndarray.instance.value))
+            },
+            |_generator, _ctx| {
+                // No need to copy. Return `ndarray` itself.
+                Ok(Some(ndarray.instance.value))
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+        .unwrap();
+
+        NDArrayObject::from_value_and_unpacked_types(
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            ndarray_val,
+            ndarray.dtype,
+            ndarray.ndims,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new ndarray like `np.array()`.
+    ///
+    /// NOTE: The `ndmin` argument is not here. You may want to
+    /// do [`NDArrayObject::atleast_nd`] to achieve that.
+    pub fn make_np_array<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        object: AnyObject<'ctx>,
+        copy: Instance<'ctx, Int<Bool>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        match &*ctx.unifier.get_ty(object.ty) {
+            TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. }
+                if *obj_id == ctx.primitives.list.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).unwrap() =>
+            {
+                let list = ListObject::from_object(generator, ctx, object);
+                NDArrayObject::make_np_array_list_impl(generator, ctx, list, copy)
+            }
+            TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. }
+                if *obj_id == ctx.primitives.ndarray.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).unwrap() =>
+            {
+                let ndarray = NDArrayObject::from_object(generator, ctx, object);
+                NDArrayObject::make_np_array_ndarray_impl(generator, ctx, ndarray, copy)
+            }
+            _ => panic!("Unrecognized object type: {}", ctx.unifier.stringify(object.ty)), // Typechecker ensures this
+        }
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/ndarray/broadcast.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use crate::codegen::{
+    irrt::{call_nac3_ndarray_broadcast_shapes, call_nac3_ndarray_broadcast_to},
+    model::*,
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+use super::NDArrayObject;
+
+/// Fields of [`ShapeEntry`]
+pub struct ShapeEntryFields<'ctx, F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> {
+    pub ndims: F::Output<Int<SizeT>>,
+    pub shape: F::Output<Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+}
+
+/// An IRRT structure used in broadcasting.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct ShapeEntry;
+
+impl<'ctx> StructKind<'ctx> for ShapeEntry {
+    type Fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> = ShapeEntryFields<'ctx, F>;
+
+    fn iter_fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>>(&self, traversal: &mut F) -> Self::Fields<F> {
+        Self::Fields { ndims: traversal.add_auto("ndims"), shape: traversal.add_auto("shape") }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Create a broadcast view on this ndarray with a target shape.
+    ///
+    /// The input shape will be checked to make sure that it contains no negative values.
+    ///
+    /// * `target_ndims` - The ndims type after broadcasting to the given shape.
+    ///   The caller has to figure this out for this function.
+    /// * `target_shape` - An array pointer pointing to the target shape.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn broadcast_to<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        target_ndims: u64,
+        target_shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let broadcast_ndarray = NDArrayObject::alloca(generator, ctx, self.dtype, target_ndims);
+        broadcast_ndarray.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, target_shape);
+
+        call_nac3_ndarray_broadcast_to(generator, ctx, self.instance, broadcast_ndarray.instance);
+        broadcast_ndarray
+    }
+}
+/// A result produced by [`broadcast_all_ndarrays`]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct BroadcastAllResult<'ctx> {
+    /// The statically known `ndims` of the broadcast result.
+    pub ndims: u64,
+    /// The broadcasting shape.
+    pub shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    /// Broadcasted views on the inputs.
+    ///
+    /// All of them will have `shape` [`BroadcastAllResult::shape`] and
+    /// `ndims` [`BroadcastAllResult::ndims`]. The length of the vector
+    /// is the same as the input.
+    pub ndarrays: Vec<NDArrayObject<'ctx>>,
+}
+
+/// Helper function to call `call_nac3_ndarray_broadcast_shapes`
+fn broadcast_shapes<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    in_shape_entries: &[(Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>, u64)], // (shape, shape's length/ndims)
+    broadcast_ndims: u64,
+    broadcast_shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+) {
+    // Prepare input shape entries to be passed to `call_nac3_ndarray_broadcast_shapes`.
+    let num_shape_entries = Int(SizeT).const_int(
+        generator,
+        ctx.ctx,
+        u64::try_from(in_shape_entries.len()).unwrap(),
+        false,
+    );
+    let shape_entries = Struct(ShapeEntry).array_alloca(generator, ctx, num_shape_entries.value);
+    for (i, (in_shape, in_ndims)) in in_shape_entries.iter().enumerate() {
+        let pshape_entry = shape_entries.offset_const(ctx, i64::try_from(i).unwrap());
+
+        let in_ndims = Int(SizeT).const_int(generator, ctx.ctx, *in_ndims, false);
+        pshape_entry.set(ctx, |f| f.ndims, in_ndims);
+
+        pshape_entry.set(ctx, |f| f.shape, *in_shape);
+    }
+
+    let broadcast_ndims = Int(SizeT).const_int(generator, ctx.ctx, broadcast_ndims, false);
+    call_nac3_ndarray_broadcast_shapes(
+        generator,
+        ctx,
+        num_shape_entries,
+        shape_entries,
+        broadcast_ndims,
+        broadcast_shape,
+    );
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Broadcast all ndarrays according to `np.broadcast()` and return a [`BroadcastAllResult`]
+    /// containing all the information of the result of the broadcast operation.
+    pub fn broadcast<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ndarrays: &[Self],
+    ) -> BroadcastAllResult<'ctx> {
+        assert!(!ndarrays.is_empty());
+
+        // Infer the broadcast output ndims.
+        let broadcast_ndims_int = ndarrays.iter().map(|ndarray| ndarray.ndims).max().unwrap();
+
+        let broadcast_ndims = Int(SizeT).const_int(generator, ctx.ctx, broadcast_ndims_int, false);
+        let broadcast_shape = Int(SizeT).array_alloca(generator, ctx, broadcast_ndims.value);
+
+        let shape_entries = ndarrays
+            .iter()
+            .map(|ndarray| (ndarray.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.shape), ndarray.ndims))
+            .collect_vec();
+        broadcast_shapes(generator, ctx, &shape_entries, broadcast_ndims_int, broadcast_shape);
+
+        // Broadcast all the inputs to shape `dst_shape`.
+        let broadcast_ndarrays: Vec<_> = ndarrays
+            .iter()
+            .map(|ndarray| {
+                ndarray.broadcast_to(generator, ctx, broadcast_ndims_int, broadcast_shape)
+            })
+            .collect_vec();
+
+        BroadcastAllResult {
+            ndims: broadcast_ndims_int,
+            shape: broadcast_shape,
+            ndarrays: broadcast_ndarrays,
+        }
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/ndarray/factory.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,175 @@
+use inkwell::{values::BasicValueEnum, IntPredicate};
+
+use super::NDArrayObject;
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{
+        irrt::call_nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative, model::*, CodeGenContext,
+        CodeGenerator,
+    },
+    typecheck::typedef::Type,
+};
+
+/// Get the zero value in `np.zeros()` of a `dtype`.
+fn ndarray_zero_value<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    dtype: Type,
+) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
+    if [ctx.primitives.int32, ctx.primitives.uint32]
+        .iter()
+        .any(|ty| ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, *ty))
+    {
+        ctx.ctx.i32_type().const_zero().into()
+    } else if [ctx.primitives.int64, ctx.primitives.uint64]
+        .iter()
+        .any(|ty| ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, *ty))
+    {
+        ctx.ctx.i64_type().const_zero().into()
+    } else if ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, ctx.primitives.float) {
+        ctx.ctx.f64_type().const_zero().into()
+    } else if ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, ctx.primitives.bool) {
+        ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_zero().into()
+    } else if ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, ctx.primitives.str) {
+        ctx.gen_string(generator, "").into()
+    } else {
+        panic!("unrecognized dtype: {}", ctx.unifier.stringify(dtype));
+    }
+}
+
+/// Get the one value in `np.ones()` of a `dtype`.
+fn ndarray_one_value<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    dtype: Type,
+) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
+    if [ctx.primitives.int32, ctx.primitives.uint32]
+        .iter()
+        .any(|ty| ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, *ty))
+    {
+        let is_signed = ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, ctx.primitives.int32);
+        ctx.ctx.i32_type().const_int(1, is_signed).into()
+    } else if [ctx.primitives.int64, ctx.primitives.uint64]
+        .iter()
+        .any(|ty| ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, *ty))
+    {
+        let is_signed = ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, ctx.primitives.int64);
+        ctx.ctx.i64_type().const_int(1, is_signed).into()
+    } else if ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, ctx.primitives.float) {
+        ctx.ctx.f64_type().const_float(1.0).into()
+    } else if ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, ctx.primitives.bool) {
+        ctx.ctx.bool_type().const_int(1, false).into()
+    } else if ctx.unifier.unioned(dtype, ctx.primitives.str) {
+        ctx.gen_string(generator, "1").into()
+    } else {
+        panic!("unrecognized dtype: {}", ctx.unifier.stringify(dtype));
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Create an ndarray like `np.empty`.
+    pub fn make_np_empty<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dtype: Type,
+        ndims: u64,
+        shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // Validate `shape`
+        let ndims_llvm = Int(SizeT).const_int(generator, ctx.ctx, ndims, false);
+        call_nac3_ndarray_util_assert_shape_no_negative(generator, ctx, ndims_llvm, shape);
+
+        let ndarray = NDArrayObject::alloca(generator, ctx, dtype, ndims);
+        ndarray.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, shape);
+        ndarray.create_data(generator, ctx);
+
+        ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Create an ndarray like `np.full`.
+    pub fn make_np_full<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dtype: Type,
+        ndims: u64,
+        shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+        fill_value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let ndarray = NDArrayObject::make_np_empty(generator, ctx, dtype, ndims, shape);
+        ndarray.fill(generator, ctx, fill_value);
+        ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Create an ndarray like `np.zero`.
+    pub fn make_np_zeros<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dtype: Type,
+        ndims: u64,
+        shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let fill_value = ndarray_zero_value(generator, ctx, dtype);
+        NDArrayObject::make_np_full(generator, ctx, dtype, ndims, shape, fill_value)
+    }
+
+    /// Create an ndarray like `np.ones`.
+    pub fn make_np_ones<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dtype: Type,
+        ndims: u64,
+        shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let fill_value = ndarray_one_value(generator, ctx, dtype);
+        NDArrayObject::make_np_full(generator, ctx, dtype, ndims, shape, fill_value)
+    }
+
+    /// Create an ndarray like `np.eye`.
+    pub fn make_np_eye<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dtype: Type,
+        nrows: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+        ncols: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+        offset: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let ndzero = ndarray_zero_value(generator, ctx, dtype);
+        let ndone = ndarray_one_value(generator, ctx, dtype);
+
+        let ndarray = NDArrayObject::alloca_dynamic_shape(generator, ctx, dtype, &[nrows, ncols]);
+
+        // Create data and make the matrix like look np.eye()
+        ndarray.create_data(generator, ctx);
+        ndarray
+            .foreach(generator, ctx, |generator, ctx, _hooks, nditer| {
+                // NOTE: rows and cols can never be zero here, since this ndarray's `np.size` would be zero
+                // and this loop would not execute.
+
+                // Load up `row_i` and `col_i` from indices.
+                let row_i = nditer.get_indices().get_index_const(generator, ctx, 0);
+                let col_i = nditer.get_indices().get_index_const(generator, ctx, 1);
+
+                let be_one = row_i.add(ctx, offset).compare(ctx, IntPredicate::EQ, col_i);
+                let value = ctx.builder.build_select(be_one.value, ndone, ndzero, "value").unwrap();
+
+                let p = nditer.get_pointer(generator, ctx);
+                ctx.builder.build_store(p, value).unwrap();
+
+                Ok(())
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+
+        ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Create an ndarray like `np.identity`.
+    pub fn make_np_identity<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dtype: Type,
+        size: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // Convenient implementation
+        let offset = Int(SizeT).const_0(generator, ctx.ctx);
+        NDArrayObject::make_np_eye(generator, ctx, dtype, size, size, offset)
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/ndarray/indexing.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,226 @@
+use super::NDArrayObject;
+use crate::codegen::{
+    irrt::call_nac3_ndarray_index,
+    model::*,
+    object::utils::slice::{RustSlice, Slice},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+pub type NDIndexType = Byte;
+
+/// Fields of [`NDIndex`]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct NDIndexFields<'ctx, F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> {
+    pub type_: F::Output<Int<NDIndexType>>,
+    pub data: F::Output<Ptr<Int<Byte>>>,
+}
+
+/// An IRRT representation of an ndarray subscript index.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct NDIndex;
+
+impl<'ctx> StructKind<'ctx> for NDIndex {
+    type Fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> = NDIndexFields<'ctx, F>;
+
+    fn iter_fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>>(&self, traversal: &mut F) -> Self::Fields<F> {
+        Self::Fields { type_: traversal.add_auto("type"), data: traversal.add_auto("data") }
+    }
+}
+
+// A convenience enum representing a [`NDIndex`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub enum RustNDIndex<'ctx> {
+    SingleElement(Instance<'ctx, Int<Int32>>),
+    Slice(RustSlice<'ctx, Int32>),
+    NewAxis,
+    Ellipsis,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> RustNDIndex<'ctx> {
+    /// Get the value to set `NDIndex::type` for this variant.
+    fn get_type_id(&self) -> u64 {
+        // Defined in IRRT, must be in sync
+        match self {
+            RustNDIndex::SingleElement(_) => 0,
+            RustNDIndex::Slice(_) => 1,
+            RustNDIndex::NewAxis => 2,
+            RustNDIndex::Ellipsis => 3,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize this [`RustNDIndex`] by writing it into an LLVM [`NDIndex`].
+    fn write_to_ndindex<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dst_ndindex_ptr: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDIndex>>>,
+    ) {
+        // Set `dst_ndindex_ptr->type`
+        dst_ndindex_ptr.gep(ctx, |f| f.type_).store(
+            ctx,
+            Int(NDIndexType::default()).const_int(generator, ctx.ctx, self.get_type_id(), false),
+        );
+
+        // Set `dst_ndindex_ptr->data`
+        match self {
+            RustNDIndex::SingleElement(in_index) => {
+                let index_ptr = Int(Int32).alloca(generator, ctx);
+                index_ptr.store(ctx, *in_index);
+
+                dst_ndindex_ptr
+                    .gep(ctx, |f| f.data)
+                    .store(ctx, index_ptr.pointer_cast(generator, ctx, Int(Byte)));
+            }
+            RustNDIndex::Slice(in_rust_slice) => {
+                let user_slice_ptr = Struct(Slice(Int32)).alloca(generator, ctx);
+                in_rust_slice.write_to_slice(generator, ctx, user_slice_ptr);
+
+                dst_ndindex_ptr
+                    .gep(ctx, |f| f.data)
+                    .store(ctx, user_slice_ptr.pointer_cast(generator, ctx, Int(Byte)));
+            }
+            RustNDIndex::NewAxis | RustNDIndex::Ellipsis => {}
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Serialize a list of `RustNDIndex` as a newly allocated LLVM array of `NDIndex`.
+    pub fn make_ndindices<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        in_ndindices: &[RustNDIndex<'ctx>],
+    ) -> (Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>, Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDIndex>>>) {
+        let ndindex_model = Struct(NDIndex);
+
+        // Allocate the LLVM ndindices.
+        let num_ndindices =
+            Int(SizeT).const_int(generator, ctx.ctx, in_ndindices.len() as u64, false);
+        let ndindices = ndindex_model.array_alloca(generator, ctx, num_ndindices.value);
+
+        // Initialize all of them.
+        for (i, in_ndindex) in in_ndindices.iter().enumerate() {
+            let pndindex = ndindices.offset_const(ctx, i64::try_from(i).unwrap());
+            in_ndindex.write_to_ndindex(generator, ctx, pndindex);
+        }
+
+        (num_ndindices, ndindices)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Get the expected `ndims` after indexing with `indices`.
+    #[must_use]
+    fn deduce_ndims_after_indexing_with(&self, indices: &[RustNDIndex<'ctx>]) -> u64 {
+        let mut ndims = self.ndims;
+        for index in indices {
+            match index {
+                RustNDIndex::SingleElement(_) => {
+                    ndims -= 1; // Single elements decrements ndims
+                }
+                RustNDIndex::NewAxis => {
+                    ndims += 1; // `np.newaxis` / `none` adds a new axis
+                }
+                RustNDIndex::Ellipsis | RustNDIndex::Slice(_) => {}
+            }
+        }
+        ndims
+    }
+
+    /// Index into the ndarray, and return a newly-allocated view on this ndarray.
+    ///
+    /// This function behaves like NumPy's ndarray indexing, but if the indices index
+    /// into a single element, an unsized ndarray is returned.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn index<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        indices: &[RustNDIndex<'ctx>],
+    ) -> Self {
+        let dst_ndims = self.deduce_ndims_after_indexing_with(indices);
+        let dst_ndarray = NDArrayObject::alloca(generator, ctx, self.dtype, dst_ndims);
+
+        let (num_indices, indices) = RustNDIndex::make_ndindices(generator, ctx, indices);
+        call_nac3_ndarray_index(
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            num_indices,
+            indices,
+            self.instance,
+            dst_ndarray.instance,
+        );
+
+        dst_ndarray
+    }
+}
+
+pub mod util {
+    use itertools::Itertools;
+    use nac3parser::ast::{Expr, ExprKind};
+
+    use crate::{
+        codegen::{model::*, object::utils::slice::util::gen_slice, CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+        typecheck::typedef::Type,
+    };
+
+    use super::RustNDIndex;
+
+    /// Generate LLVM code to transform an ndarray subscript expression to
+    /// its list of [`RustNDIndex`]
+    ///
+    /// i.e.,
+    /// ```python
+    /// my_ndarray[::3, 1, :2:]
+    ///            ^^^^^^^^^^^ Then these into a three `RustNDIndex`es
+    /// ```
+    pub fn gen_ndarray_subscript_ndindices<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        subscript: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RustNDIndex<'ctx>>, String> {
+        // TODO: Support https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.indexing.html#dimensional-indexing-tools
+
+        // Annoying notes about `slice`
+        //  - `my_array[5]`
+        //    - slice is a `Constant`
+        //  - `my_array[:5]`
+        //    - slice is a `Slice`
+        //  - `my_array[:]`
+        //    - slice is a `Slice`, but lower upper step would all be `Option::None`
+        //  - `my_array[:, :]`
+        //    - slice is now a `Tuple` of two `Slice`-s
+        //
+        // In summary:
+        //  - when there is a comma "," within [], `slice` will be a `Tuple` of the entries.
+        //  - when there is not comma "," within [] (i.e., just a single entry), `slice` will be that entry itself.
+        //
+        // So we first "flatten" out the slice expression
+        let index_exprs = match &subscript.node {
+            ExprKind::Tuple { elts, .. } => elts.iter().collect_vec(),
+            _ => vec![subscript],
+        };
+
+        // Process all index expressions
+        let mut rust_ndindices: Vec<RustNDIndex> = Vec::with_capacity(index_exprs.len()); // Not using iterators here because `?` is used here.
+        for index_expr in index_exprs {
+            // NOTE: Currently nac3core's slices do not have an object representation,
+            // so the code/implementation looks awkward - we have to do pattern matching on the expression
+            let ndindex = if let ExprKind::Slice { lower, upper, step } = &index_expr.node {
+                // Handle slices
+                let slice = gen_slice(generator, ctx, lower, upper, step)?;
+                RustNDIndex::Slice(slice)
+            } else {
+                // Treat and handle everything else as a single element index.
+                let index = generator.gen_expr(ctx, index_expr)?.unwrap().to_basic_value_enum(
+                    ctx,
+                    generator,
+                    ctx.primitives.int32, // Must be int32, this checks for illegal values
+                )?;
+                let index = Int(Int32).check_value(generator, ctx.ctx, index).unwrap();
+
+                RustNDIndex::SingleElement(index)
+            };
+            rust_ndindices.push(ndindex);
+        }
+        Ok(rust_ndindices)
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/ndarray/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,504 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    context::Context,
+    types::BasicType,
+    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, PointerValue},
+    AddressSpace,
+};
+
+use super::{any::AnyObject, tuple::TupleObject};
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{
+        irrt::{
+            call_nac3_ndarray_copy_data, call_nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement,
+            call_nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices, call_nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous,
+            call_nac3_ndarray_len, call_nac3_ndarray_nbytes,
+            call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape, call_nac3_ndarray_size,
+        },
+        model::*,
+        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+    },
+    toplevel::{helper::extract_ndims, numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys},
+    typecheck::typedef::Type,
+};
+
+pub mod array;
+pub mod broadcast;
+pub mod factory;
+pub mod indexing;
+pub mod nditer;
+pub mod shape_util;
+pub mod view;
+
+/// Fields of [`NDArray`]
+pub struct NDArrayFields<'ctx, F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> {
+    pub data: F::Output<Ptr<Int<Byte>>>,
+    pub itemsize: F::Output<Int<SizeT>>,
+    pub ndims: F::Output<Int<SizeT>>,
+    pub shape: F::Output<Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    pub strides: F::Output<Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+}
+
+/// A strided ndarray in NAC3.
+///
+/// See IRRT implementation for details about its fields.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct NDArray;
+
+impl<'ctx> StructKind<'ctx> for NDArray {
+    type Fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> = NDArrayFields<'ctx, F>;
+
+    fn iter_fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>>(&self, traversal: &mut F) -> Self::Fields<F> {
+        Self::Fields {
+            data: traversal.add_auto("data"),
+            itemsize: traversal.add_auto("itemsize"),
+            ndims: traversal.add_auto("ndims"),
+            shape: traversal.add_auto("shape"),
+            strides: traversal.add_auto("strides"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A NAC3 Python ndarray object.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub struct NDArrayObject<'ctx> {
+    pub dtype: Type,
+    pub ndims: u64,
+    pub instance: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDArray>>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Attempt to convert an [`AnyObject`] into an [`NDArrayObject`].
+    pub fn from_object<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        object: AnyObject<'ctx>,
+    ) -> NDArrayObject<'ctx> {
+        let (dtype, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, object.ty);
+        let ndims = extract_ndims(&ctx.unifier, ndims);
+        Self::from_value_and_unpacked_types(generator, ctx, object.value, dtype, ndims)
+    }
+
+    /// Like [`NDArrayObject::from_object`] but you directly supply the ndarray's
+    /// `dtype` and `ndims`.
+    pub fn from_value_and_unpacked_types<V: BasicValue<'ctx>, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: V,
+        dtype: Type,
+        ndims: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let value = Ptr(Struct(NDArray)).check_value(generator, ctx.ctx, value).unwrap();
+        NDArrayObject { dtype, ndims, instance: value }
+    }
+
+    /// Get this ndarray's `ndims` as an LLVM constant.
+    pub fn ndims_llvm<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &'ctx Context,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+        Int(SizeT).const_int(generator, ctx, self.ndims, false)
+    }
+
+    /// Allocate an ndarray on the stack given its `ndims` and `dtype`.
+    ///
+    /// `shape` and `strides` will be automatically allocated onto the stack.
+    ///
+    /// The returned ndarray's content will be:
+    /// - `data`: uninitialized.
+    /// - `itemsize`: set to the `sizeof()` of `dtype`.
+    /// - `ndims`: set to the value of  `ndims`.
+    /// - `shape`: allocated with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized values.
+    /// - `strides`: allocated with an array of length `ndims` with uninitialized values.
+    pub fn alloca<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dtype: Type,
+        ndims: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let ndarray = Struct(NDArray).alloca(generator, ctx);
+
+        let itemsize = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, dtype).size_of().unwrap();
+        let itemsize = Int(SizeT).z_extend_or_truncate(generator, ctx, itemsize);
+        ndarray.set(ctx, |f| f.itemsize, itemsize);
+
+        let ndims_val = Int(SizeT).const_int(generator, ctx.ctx, ndims, false);
+        ndarray.set(ctx, |f| f.ndims, ndims_val);
+
+        let shape = Int(SizeT).array_alloca(generator, ctx, ndims_val.value);
+        ndarray.set(ctx, |f| f.shape, shape);
+
+        let strides = Int(SizeT).array_alloca(generator, ctx, ndims_val.value);
+        ndarray.set(ctx, |f| f.strides, strides);
+
+        NDArrayObject { dtype, ndims, instance: ndarray }
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience function. Allocate an [`NDArrayObject`] with a statically known shape.
+    ///
+    /// The returned [`NDArrayObject`]'s `data` and `strides` are uninitialized.
+    pub fn alloca_constant_shape<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dtype: Type,
+        shape: &[u64],
+    ) -> Self {
+        let ndarray = NDArrayObject::alloca(generator, ctx, dtype, shape.len() as u64);
+
+        // Write shape
+        let dst_shape = ndarray.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.shape);
+        for (i, dim) in shape.iter().enumerate() {
+            let dim = Int(SizeT).const_int(generator, ctx.ctx, *dim, false);
+            dst_shape.offset_const(ctx, i64::try_from(i).unwrap()).store(ctx, dim);
+        }
+
+        ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience function. Allocate an [`NDArrayObject`] with a dynamically known shape.
+    ///
+    /// The returned [`NDArrayObject`]'s `data` and `strides` are uninitialized.
+    pub fn alloca_dynamic_shape<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dtype: Type,
+        shape: &[Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>],
+    ) -> Self {
+        let ndarray = NDArrayObject::alloca(generator, ctx, dtype, shape.len() as u64);
+
+        // Write shape
+        let dst_shape = ndarray.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.shape);
+        for (i, dim) in shape.iter().enumerate() {
+            dst_shape.offset_const(ctx, i64::try_from(i).unwrap()).store(ctx, *dim);
+        }
+
+        ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Initialize an ndarray's `data` by allocating a buffer on the stack.
+    /// The allocated data buffer is considered to be *owned* by the ndarray.
+    ///
+    /// `strides` of the ndarray will also be updated with `set_strides_by_shape`.
+    ///
+    /// `shape` and `itemsize` of the ndarray ***must*** be initialized first.
+    pub fn create_data<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) {
+        let nbytes = self.nbytes(generator, ctx);
+
+        let data = Int(Byte).array_alloca(generator, ctx, nbytes.value);
+        self.instance.set(ctx, |f| f.data, data);
+
+        self.set_strides_contiguous(generator, ctx);
+    }
+
+    /// Copy shape dimensions from an array.
+    pub fn copy_shape_from_array<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    ) {
+        let num_items = self.ndims_llvm(generator, ctx.ctx).value;
+        self.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.shape).copy_from(generator, ctx, shape, num_items);
+    }
+
+    /// Copy shape dimensions from an ndarray.
+    /// Panics if `ndims` mismatches.
+    pub fn copy_shape_from_ndarray<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        src_ndarray: NDArrayObject<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(self.ndims, src_ndarray.ndims);
+        let src_shape = src_ndarray.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.shape);
+        self.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, src_shape);
+    }
+
+    /// Copy strides dimensions from an array.
+    pub fn copy_strides_from_array<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        strides: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    ) {
+        let num_items = self.ndims_llvm(generator, ctx.ctx).value;
+        self.instance
+            .get(generator, ctx, |f| f.strides)
+            .copy_from(generator, ctx, strides, num_items);
+    }
+
+    /// Copy strides dimensions from an ndarray.
+    /// Panics if `ndims` mismatches.
+    pub fn copy_strides_from_ndarray<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        src_ndarray: NDArrayObject<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        assert_eq!(self.ndims, src_ndarray.ndims);
+        let src_strides = src_ndarray.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.strides);
+        self.copy_strides_from_array(generator, ctx, src_strides);
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `np.size()` of this ndarray.
+    pub fn size<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+        call_nac3_ndarray_size(generator, ctx, self.instance)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `ndarray.nbytes` of this ndarray.
+    pub fn nbytes<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+        call_nac3_ndarray_nbytes(generator, ctx, self.instance)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `len()` of this ndarray.
+    pub fn len<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+        call_nac3_ndarray_len(generator, ctx, self.instance)
+    }
+
+    /// Check if this ndarray is C-contiguous.
+    ///
+    /// See NumPy's `flags["C_CONTIGUOUS"]`: <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.flags.html#numpy.ndarray.flags>
+    pub fn is_c_contiguous<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<Bool>> {
+        call_nac3_ndarray_is_c_contiguous(generator, ctx, self.instance)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the pointer to the n-th (0-based) element.
+    ///
+    /// The returned pointer has the element type of the LLVM type of this ndarray's `dtype`.
+    pub fn get_nth_pelement<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        nth: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let elem_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, self.dtype);
+
+        let p = call_nac3_ndarray_get_nth_pelement(generator, ctx, self.instance, nth);
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_pointer_cast(p.value, elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the n-th (0-based) scalar.
+    pub fn get_nth_scalar<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        nth: Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>,
+    ) -> AnyObject<'ctx> {
+        let ptr = self.get_nth_pelement(generator, ctx, nth);
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_load(ptr, "").unwrap();
+        AnyObject { ty: self.dtype, value }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the pointer to the element indexed by `indices`.
+    ///
+    /// The returned pointer has the element type of the LLVM type of this ndarray's `dtype`.
+    pub fn get_pelement_by_indices<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        indices: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let elem_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, self.dtype);
+
+        let p = call_nac3_ndarray_get_pelement_by_indices(generator, ctx, self.instance, indices);
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_pointer_cast(p.value, elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "")
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the scalar indexed by `indices`.
+    pub fn get_scalar_by_indices<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        indices: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    ) -> AnyObject<'ctx> {
+        let ptr = self.get_pelement_by_indices(generator, ctx, indices);
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_load(ptr, "").unwrap();
+        AnyObject { ty: self.dtype, value }
+    }
+
+    /// Call [`call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape`] on this ndarray to update `strides`.
+    ///
+    /// Update the ndarray's strides to make the ndarray contiguous.
+    pub fn set_strides_contiguous<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) {
+        call_nac3_ndarray_set_strides_by_shape(generator, ctx, self.instance);
+    }
+
+    /// Clone/Copy this ndarray - Allocate a new ndarray with the same shape as this ndarray and copy the contents over.
+    ///
+    /// The new ndarray will own its data and will be C-contiguous.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn make_copy<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let clone = NDArrayObject::alloca(generator, ctx, self.dtype, self.ndims);
+
+        let shape = self.instance.gep(ctx, |f| f.shape).load(generator, ctx);
+        clone.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, shape);
+        clone.create_data(generator, ctx);
+        clone.copy_data_from(generator, ctx, *self);
+        clone
+    }
+
+    /// Copy data from another ndarray.
+    ///
+    /// This ndarray and `src` is that their `np.size()` should be the same. Their shapes
+    /// do not matter. The copying order is determined by how their flattened views look.
+    ///
+    /// Panics if the `dtype`s of ndarrays are different.
+    pub fn copy_data_from<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        src: NDArrayObject<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        assert!(ctx.unifier.unioned(self.dtype, src.dtype), "self and src dtype should match");
+        call_nac3_ndarray_copy_data(generator, ctx, src.instance, self.instance);
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if this ndarray is unsized - `ndims == 0` and only contains a scalar.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn is_unsized(&self) -> bool {
+        self.ndims == 0
+    }
+
+    /// If this ndarray is unsized, return its sole value as an [`AnyObject`].
+    /// Otherwise, do nothing and return the ndarray itself.
+    pub fn split_unsized<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> ScalarOrNDArray<'ctx> {
+        if self.is_unsized() {
+            // NOTE: `np.size(self) == 0` here is never possible.
+            let zero = Int(SizeT).const_0(generator, ctx.ctx);
+            let value = self.get_nth_scalar(generator, ctx, zero).value;
+
+            ScalarOrNDArray::Scalar(AnyObject { ty: self.dtype, value })
+        } else {
+            ScalarOrNDArray::NDArray(*self)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Fill the ndarray with a scalar.
+    ///
+    /// `fill_value` must have the same LLVM type as the `dtype` of this ndarray.
+    pub fn fill<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        value: BasicValueEnum<'ctx>,
+    ) {
+        // TODO: It is possible to optimize this by exploiting contiguous strides with memset.
+        // Probably best to implement in IRRT.
+        self.foreach(generator, ctx, |generator, ctx, _hooks, nditer| {
+            let p = nditer.get_pointer(generator, ctx);
+            ctx.builder.build_store(p, value).unwrap();
+            Ok(())
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+    }
+
+    /// Create the shape tuple of this ndarray like `np.shape(<ndarray>)`.
+    ///
+    /// The returned integers in the tuple are in int32.
+    pub fn make_shape_tuple<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> TupleObject<'ctx> {
+        // TODO: Return a tuple of SizeT
+
+        let mut objects = Vec::with_capacity(self.ndims as usize);
+
+        for i in 0..self.ndims {
+            let dim = self
+                .instance
+                .get(generator, ctx, |f| f.shape)
+                .get_index_const(generator, ctx, i64::try_from(i).unwrap())
+                .truncate_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, Int32);
+
+            objects.push(AnyObject {
+                ty: ctx.primitives.int32,
+                value: dim.value.as_basic_value_enum(),
+            });
+        }
+
+        TupleObject::from_objects(generator, ctx, objects)
+    }
+
+    /// Create the strides tuple of this ndarray like `<ndarray>.strides`.
+    ///
+    /// The returned integers in the tuple are in int32.
+    pub fn make_strides_tuple<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> TupleObject<'ctx> {
+        // TODO: Return a tuple of SizeT.
+
+        let mut objects = Vec::with_capacity(self.ndims as usize);
+
+        for i in 0..self.ndims {
+            let dim = self
+                .instance
+                .get(generator, ctx, |f| f.strides)
+                .get_index_const(generator, ctx, i64::try_from(i).unwrap())
+                .truncate_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, Int32);
+
+            objects.push(AnyObject {
+                ty: ctx.primitives.int32,
+                value: dim.value.as_basic_value_enum(),
+            });
+        }
+
+        TupleObject::from_objects(generator, ctx, objects)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A convenience enum for implementing functions that acts on scalars or ndarrays or both.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub enum ScalarOrNDArray<'ctx> {
+    Scalar(AnyObject<'ctx>),
+    NDArray(NDArrayObject<'ctx>),
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> ScalarOrNDArray<'ctx> {
+    /// Get the underlying [`BasicValueEnum<'ctx>`] of this [`ScalarOrNDArray`].
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn to_basic_value_enum(self) -> BasicValueEnum<'ctx> {
+        match self {
+            ScalarOrNDArray::Scalar(scalar) => scalar.value,
+            ScalarOrNDArray::NDArray(ndarray) => ndarray.instance.value.as_basic_value_enum(),
+        }
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/ndarray/nditer.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,178 @@
+use inkwell::{types::BasicType, values::PointerValue, AddressSpace};
+
+use super::NDArrayObject;
+use crate::codegen::{
+    irrt::{call_nac3_nditer_has_element, call_nac3_nditer_initialize, call_nac3_nditer_next},
+    model::*,
+    object::any::AnyObject,
+    stmt::{gen_for_callback, BreakContinueHooks},
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+/// Fields of [`NDIter`]
+pub struct NDIterFields<'ctx, F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> {
+    pub ndims: F::Output<Int<SizeT>>,
+    pub shape: F::Output<Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    pub strides: F::Output<Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+
+    pub indices: F::Output<Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    pub nth: F::Output<Int<SizeT>>,
+    pub element: F::Output<Ptr<Int<Byte>>>,
+
+    pub size: F::Output<Int<SizeT>>,
+}
+
+/// An IRRT helper structure used to iterate through an ndarray.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default)]
+pub struct NDIter;
+
+impl<'ctx> StructKind<'ctx> for NDIter {
+    type Fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> = NDIterFields<'ctx, F>;
+
+    fn iter_fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>>(&self, traversal: &mut F) -> Self::Fields<F> {
+        Self::Fields {
+            ndims: traversal.add_auto("ndims"),
+            shape: traversal.add_auto("shape"),
+            strides: traversal.add_auto("strides"),
+
+            indices: traversal.add_auto("indices"),
+            nth: traversal.add_auto("nth"),
+            element: traversal.add_auto("element"),
+
+            size: traversal.add_auto("size"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A helper structure with a convenient interface to interact with [`NDIter`].
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct NDIterHandle<'ctx> {
+    instance: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<NDIter>>>,
+    /// The ndarray this [`NDIter`] to iterating over.
+    ndarray: NDArrayObject<'ctx>,
+    /// The current indices of [`NDIter`].
+    indices: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDIterHandle<'ctx> {
+    /// Allocate an [`NDIter`] that iterates through an ndarray.
+    pub fn new<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ndarray: NDArrayObject<'ctx>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let nditer = Struct(NDIter).alloca(generator, ctx);
+        let ndims = ndarray.ndims_llvm(generator, ctx.ctx);
+
+        // The caller has the responsibility to allocate 'indices' for `NDIter`.
+        let indices = Int(SizeT).array_alloca(generator, ctx, ndims.value);
+        call_nac3_nditer_initialize(generator, ctx, nditer, ndarray.instance, indices);
+
+        NDIterHandle { ndarray, instance: nditer, indices }
+    }
+
+    /// Is the current iteration valid?
+    ///
+    /// If true, then `element`, `indices` and `nth` contain details about the current element.
+    ///
+    /// If `ndarray` is unsized, this returns true only for the first iteration.
+    /// If `ndarray` is 0-sized, this always returns false.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn has_element<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<Bool>> {
+        call_nac3_nditer_has_element(generator, ctx, self.instance)
+    }
+
+    /// Go to the next element. If `has_element()` is false, then this has undefined behavior.
+    ///
+    /// If `ndarray` is unsized, this can only be called once.
+    /// If `ndarray` is 0-sized, this can never be called.
+    pub fn next<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) {
+        call_nac3_nditer_next(generator, ctx, self.instance);
+    }
+
+    /// Get pointer to the current element.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_pointer<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> PointerValue<'ctx> {
+        let elem_ty = ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, self.ndarray.dtype);
+
+        let p = self.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.element);
+        ctx.builder
+            .build_pointer_cast(p.value, elem_ty.ptr_type(AddressSpace::default()), "element")
+            .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the value of the current element.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_scalar<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> AnyObject<'ctx> {
+        let p = self.get_pointer(generator, ctx);
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_load(p, "value").unwrap();
+        AnyObject { ty: self.ndarray.dtype, value }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the index of the current element if this ndarray were a flat ndarray.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_index<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+        self.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.nth)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the indices of the current element.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_indices(&self) -> Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>> {
+        self.indices
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Iterate through every element in the ndarray.
+    ///
+    /// `body` has access to [`BreakContinueHooks`] to short-circuit and [`NDIterHandle`] to
+    /// get properties of the current iteration (e.g., the current element, indices, etc.)
+    pub fn foreach<'a, G, F>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
+        body: F,
+    ) -> Result<(), String>
+    where
+        G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized,
+        F: FnOnce(
+            &mut G,
+            &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, 'a>,
+            BreakContinueHooks<'ctx>,
+            NDIterHandle<'ctx>,
+        ) -> Result<(), String>,
+    {
+        gen_for_callback(
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            Some("ndarray_foreach"),
+            |generator, ctx| Ok(NDIterHandle::new(generator, ctx, *self)),
+            |generator, ctx, nditer| Ok(nditer.has_element(generator, ctx).value),
+            |generator, ctx, hooks, nditer| body(generator, ctx, hooks, nditer),
+            |generator, ctx, nditer| {
+                nditer.next(generator, ctx);
+                Ok(())
+            },
+        )
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/ndarray/shape_util.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{
+        model::*,
+        object::{any::AnyObject, list::ListObject, tuple::TupleObject},
+        CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+    },
+    typecheck::typedef::TypeEnum,
+};
+use util::gen_for_model;
+
+/// Parse a NumPy-like "int sequence" input and return the int sequence as an array and its length.
+///
+/// * `sequence` - The `sequence` parameter.
+/// * `sequence_ty` - The typechecker type of `sequence`
+///
+/// The `sequence` argument type may only be one of the following:
+///   1. A list of `int32`;   e.g., `np.empty([600, 800, 3])`
+///   2. A tuple of `int32`;  e.g., `np.empty((600, 800, 3))`
+///   3. A scalar `int32`;    e.g., `np.empty(3)`, this is functionally equivalent to `np.empty([3])`
+///
+/// All `int32` values will be sign-extended to `SizeT`.
+pub fn parse_numpy_int_sequence<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+    generator: &mut G,
+    ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    input_sequence: AnyObject<'ctx>,
+) -> (Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>>, Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>) {
+    let zero = Int(SizeT).const_0(generator, ctx.ctx);
+    let one = Int(SizeT).const_1(generator, ctx.ctx);
+
+    // The result `list` to return.
+    match &*ctx.unifier.get_ty(input_sequence.ty) {
+        TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. }
+            if *obj_id == ctx.primitives.list.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).unwrap() =>
+        {
+            // 1. A list of `int32`; e.g., `np.empty([600, 800, 3])`
+
+            // Check `input_sequence`
+            let input_sequence = ListObject::from_object(generator, ctx, input_sequence);
+
+            let len = input_sequence.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.len);
+            let result = Int(SizeT).array_alloca(generator, ctx, len.value);
+
+            // Load all the `int32`s from the input_sequence, cast them to `SizeT`, and store them into `result`
+            gen_for_model(generator, ctx, zero, len, one, |generator, ctx, _hooks, i| {
+                // Load the i-th int32 in the input sequence
+                let int = input_sequence
+                    .instance
+                    .get(generator, ctx, |f| f.items)
+                    .get_index(generator, ctx, i.value)
+                    .value
+                    .into_int_value();
+
+                // Cast to SizeT
+                let int = Int(SizeT).s_extend_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, int);
+
+                // Store
+                result.set_index(ctx, i.value, int);
+
+                Ok(())
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+
+            (len, result)
+        }
+        TypeEnum::TTuple { .. } => {
+            // 2. A tuple of ints; e.g., `np.empty((600, 800, 3))`
+
+            let input_sequence = TupleObject::from_object(ctx, input_sequence);
+
+            let len = input_sequence.len(generator, ctx);
+
+            let result = Int(SizeT).array_alloca(generator, ctx, len.value);
+
+            for i in 0..input_sequence.num_elements() {
+                // Get the i-th element off of the tuple and load it into `result`.
+                let int = input_sequence.index(ctx, i).value.into_int_value();
+                let int = Int(SizeT).s_extend_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, int);
+
+                result.set_index_const(ctx, i64::try_from(i).unwrap(), int);
+            }
+
+            (len, result)
+        }
+        TypeEnum::TObj { obj_id, .. }
+            if *obj_id == ctx.primitives.int32.obj_id(&ctx.unifier).unwrap() =>
+        {
+            // 3. A scalar int; e.g., `np.empty(3)`, this is functionally equivalent to `np.empty([3])`
+            let input_int = input_sequence.value.into_int_value();
+
+            let len = Int(SizeT).const_1(generator, ctx.ctx);
+            let result = Int(SizeT).array_alloca(generator, ctx, len.value);
+            let int = Int(SizeT).s_extend_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, input_int);
+
+            // Storing into result[0]
+            result.store(ctx, int);
+
+            (len, result)
+        }
+        _ => panic!(
+            "encountered unknown sequence type: {}",
+            ctx.unifier.stringify(input_sequence.ty)
+        ),
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/ndarray/view.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,118 @@
+use super::{indexing::RustNDIndex, NDArrayObject};
+use crate::codegen::{
+    irrt::{call_nac3_ndarray_reshape_resolve_and_check_new_shape, call_nac3_ndarray_transpose},
+    model::*,
+    CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator,
+};
+
+impl<'ctx> NDArrayObject<'ctx> {
+    /// Make sure the ndarray is at least `ndmin`-dimensional.
+    ///
+    /// If this ndarray's `ndims` is less than `ndmin`, a view is created on this with 1s prepended to the shape.
+    /// If this ndarray's `ndims` is not less than `ndmin`, this function does nothing and return this ndarray.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn atleast_nd<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ndmin: u64,
+    ) -> Self {
+        if self.ndims < ndmin {
+            // Extend the dimensions with np.newaxis.
+            let mut indices = vec![];
+            for _ in self.ndims..ndmin {
+                indices.push(RustNDIndex::NewAxis);
+            }
+            indices.push(RustNDIndex::Ellipsis);
+            self.index(generator, ctx, &indices)
+        } else {
+            *self
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a reshaped view on this ndarray like `np.reshape()`.
+    ///
+    /// If there is a `-1` in `new_shape`, it will be resolved; `new_shape` would **NOT** be modified as a result.
+    ///
+    /// If reshape without copying is impossible, this function will allocate a new ndarray and copy contents.
+    ///
+    /// * `new_ndims` - The number of dimensions of `new_shape` as a [`Type`].
+    /// * `new_shape` - The target shape to do `np.reshape()`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn reshape_or_copy<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        new_ndims: u64,
+        new_shape: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // TODO: The current criterion for whether to do a full copy or not is by checking `is_c_contiguous`,
+        // but this is not optimal - there are cases when the ndarray is not contiguous but could be reshaped
+        // without copying data. Look into how numpy does it.
+
+        let current_bb = ctx.builder.get_insert_block().unwrap();
+        let then_bb = ctx.ctx.insert_basic_block_after(current_bb, "then_bb");
+        let else_bb = ctx.ctx.insert_basic_block_after(then_bb, "else_bb");
+        let end_bb = ctx.ctx.insert_basic_block_after(else_bb, "end_bb");
+
+        let dst_ndarray = NDArrayObject::alloca(generator, ctx, self.dtype, new_ndims);
+        dst_ndarray.copy_shape_from_array(generator, ctx, new_shape);
+
+        // Reolsve negative indices
+        let size = self.size(generator, ctx);
+        let dst_ndims = dst_ndarray.ndims_llvm(generator, ctx.ctx);
+        let dst_shape = dst_ndarray.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.shape);
+        call_nac3_ndarray_reshape_resolve_and_check_new_shape(
+            generator, ctx, size, dst_ndims, dst_shape,
+        );
+
+        let is_c_contiguous = self.is_c_contiguous(generator, ctx);
+        ctx.builder.build_conditional_branch(is_c_contiguous.value, then_bb, else_bb).unwrap();
+
+        // Inserting into then_bb: reshape is possible without copying
+        ctx.builder.position_at_end(then_bb);
+        dst_ndarray.set_strides_contiguous(generator, ctx);
+        dst_ndarray.instance.set(ctx, |f| f.data, self.instance.get(generator, ctx, |f| f.data));
+        ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(end_bb).unwrap();
+
+        // Inserting into else_bb: reshape is impossible without copying
+        ctx.builder.position_at_end(else_bb);
+        dst_ndarray.create_data(generator, ctx);
+        dst_ndarray.copy_data_from(generator, ctx, *self);
+        ctx.builder.build_unconditional_branch(end_bb).unwrap();
+
+        // Reposition for continuation
+        ctx.builder.position_at_end(end_bb);
+
+        dst_ndarray
+    }
+
+    /// Create a transposed view on this ndarray like `np.transpose(<ndarray>, <axes> = None)`.
+    /// * `axes` - If specified, should be an array of the permutation (negative indices are **allowed**).
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn transpose<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        axes: Option<Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Int<SizeT>>>>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // Define models
+        let transposed_ndarray = NDArrayObject::alloca(generator, ctx, self.dtype, self.ndims);
+
+        let num_axes = self.ndims_llvm(generator, ctx.ctx);
+
+        // `axes = nullptr` if `axes` is unspecified.
+        let axes = axes.unwrap_or_else(|| Ptr(Int(SizeT)).nullptr(generator, ctx.ctx));
+
+        call_nac3_ndarray_transpose(
+            generator,
+            ctx,
+            self.instance,
+            transposed_ndarray.instance,
+            num_axes,
+            axes,
+        );
+
+        transposed_ndarray
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/tuple.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+use inkwell::values::StructValue;
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use super::any::AnyObject;
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{model::*, CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    typecheck::typedef::{Type, TypeEnum},
+};
+
+/// A NAC3 tuple object.
+///
+/// NOTE: This struct has no copy trait.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct TupleObject<'ctx> {
+    /// The type of the tuple.
+    pub tys: Vec<Type>,
+    /// The underlying LLVM struct value of this tuple.
+    pub value: StructValue<'ctx>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx> TupleObject<'ctx> {
+    pub fn from_object(ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, object: AnyObject<'ctx>) -> Self {
+        // TODO: Keep `is_vararg_ctx` from TTuple?
+
+        // Sanity check on object type.
+        let TypeEnum::TTuple { ty: tys, .. } = &*ctx.unifier.get_ty(object.ty) else {
+            panic!(
+                "Expected type to be a TypeEnum::TTuple, got {}",
+                ctx.unifier.stringify(object.ty)
+            );
+        };
+
+        // Check number of fields
+        let value = object.value.into_struct_value();
+        let value_num_fields = value.get_type().count_fields() as usize;
+        assert!(
+            value_num_fields == tys.len(),
+            "Tuple type has {} item(s), but the LLVM struct value has {} field(s)",
+            tys.len(),
+            value_num_fields
+        );
+
+        TupleObject { tys: tys.clone(), value }
+    }
+
+    /// Convenience function. Create a [`TupleObject`] from an iterator of objects.
+    pub fn from_objects<I, G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        objects: I,
+    ) -> Self
+    where
+        I: IntoIterator<Item = AnyObject<'ctx>>,
+    {
+        let (values, tys): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) =
+            objects.into_iter().map(|object| (object.value, object.ty)).unzip();
+
+        let llvm_tys = tys.iter().map(|ty| ctx.get_llvm_type(generator, *ty)).collect_vec();
+        let llvm_tuple_ty = ctx.ctx.struct_type(&llvm_tys, false);
+
+        let pllvm_tuple = ctx.builder.build_alloca(llvm_tuple_ty, "tuple").unwrap();
+        for (i, val) in values.into_iter().enumerate() {
+            let pval = ctx.builder.build_struct_gep(pllvm_tuple, i as u32, "value").unwrap();
+            ctx.builder.build_store(pval, val).unwrap();
+        }
+
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_load(pllvm_tuple, "").unwrap().into_struct_value();
+        TupleObject { tys, value }
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn num_elements(&self) -> usize {
+        self.tys.len()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `len()` of this tuple.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn len<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+    ) -> Instance<'ctx, Int<SizeT>> {
+        Int(SizeT).const_int(generator, ctx.ctx, self.num_elements() as u64, false)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `i`-th (0-based) object in this tuple.
+    pub fn index(&self, ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>, i: usize) -> AnyObject<'ctx> {
+        assert!(
+            i < self.num_elements(),
+            "Tuple object with length {} have index {i}",
+            self.num_elements()
+        );
+
+        let value = ctx.builder.build_extract_value(self.value, i as u32, "tuple[{i}]").unwrap();
+        let ty = self.tys[i];
+        AnyObject { ty, value }
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/object/utils/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+pub mod slice;

nac3core/src/codegen/object/utils/slice.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+use crate::codegen::{model::*, CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator};
+
+/// Fields of [`Slice`]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct SliceFields<'ctx, F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>, N: IntKind<'ctx>> {
+    pub start_defined: F::Output<Int<Bool>>,
+    pub start: F::Output<Int<N>>,
+    pub stop_defined: F::Output<Int<Bool>>,
+    pub stop: F::Output<Int<N>>,
+    pub step_defined: F::Output<Int<Bool>>,
+    pub step: F::Output<Int<N>>,
+}
+
+/// An IRRT representation of an (unresolved) slice.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct Slice<N>(pub N);
+
+impl<'ctx, N: IntKind<'ctx>> StructKind<'ctx> for Slice<N> {
+    type Fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>> = SliceFields<'ctx, F, N>;
+
+    fn iter_fields<F: FieldTraversal<'ctx>>(&self, traversal: &mut F) -> Self::Fields<F> {
+        Self::Fields {
+            start_defined: traversal.add_auto("start_defined"),
+            start: traversal.add("start", Int(self.0)),
+            stop_defined: traversal.add_auto("stop_defined"),
+            stop: traversal.add("stop", Int(self.0)),
+            step_defined: traversal.add_auto("step_defined"),
+            step: traversal.add("step", Int(self.0)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A Rust structure that has [`Slice`] utilities and looks like a [`Slice`] but
+/// `start`, `stop` and `step` are held by LLVM registers only and possibly
+/// [`Option::None`] if unspecified.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct RustSlice<'ctx, N: IntKind<'ctx>> {
+    // It is possible that `start`, `stop`, and `step` are all `None`.
+    // We need to know the `int_kind` even when that is the case.
+    pub int_kind: N,
+    pub start: Option<Instance<'ctx, Int<N>>>,
+    pub stop: Option<Instance<'ctx, Int<N>>>,
+    pub step: Option<Instance<'ctx, Int<N>>>,
+}
+
+impl<'ctx, N: IntKind<'ctx>> RustSlice<'ctx, N> {
+    /// Write the contents to an LLVM [`Slice`].
+    pub fn write_to_slice<G: CodeGenerator + ?Sized>(
+        &self,
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        dst_slice_ptr: Instance<'ctx, Ptr<Struct<Slice<N>>>>,
+    ) {
+        let false_ = Int(Bool).const_false(generator, ctx.ctx);
+        let true_ = Int(Bool).const_true(generator, ctx.ctx);
+
+        match self.start {
+            Some(start) => {
+                dst_slice_ptr.gep(ctx, |f| f.start_defined).store(ctx, true_);
+                dst_slice_ptr.gep(ctx, |f| f.start).store(ctx, start);
+            }
+            None => dst_slice_ptr.gep(ctx, |f| f.start_defined).store(ctx, false_),
+        }
+
+        match self.stop {
+            Some(stop) => {
+                dst_slice_ptr.gep(ctx, |f| f.stop_defined).store(ctx, true_);
+                dst_slice_ptr.gep(ctx, |f| f.stop).store(ctx, stop);
+            }
+            None => dst_slice_ptr.gep(ctx, |f| f.stop_defined).store(ctx, false_),
+        }
+
+        match self.step {
+            Some(step) => {
+                dst_slice_ptr.gep(ctx, |f| f.step_defined).store(ctx, true_);
+                dst_slice_ptr.gep(ctx, |f| f.step).store(ctx, step);
+            }
+            None => dst_slice_ptr.gep(ctx, |f| f.step_defined).store(ctx, false_),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub mod util {
+    use nac3parser::ast::Expr;
+
+    use crate::{
+        codegen::{model::*, CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+        typecheck::typedef::Type,
+    };
+
+    use super::RustSlice;
+
+    /// Generate LLVM IR for an [`ExprKind::Slice`] and convert it into a [`RustSlice`].
+    #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
+    pub fn gen_slice<'ctx, G: CodeGenerator>(
+        generator: &mut G,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        lower: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>,
+        upper: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>,
+        step: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>,
+    ) -> Result<RustSlice<'ctx, Int32>, String> {
+        let mut help = |value_expr: &Option<Box<Expr<Option<Type>>>>| -> Result<_, String> {
+            Ok(match value_expr {
+                None => None,
+                Some(value_expr) => {
+                    let value_expr = generator
+                        .gen_expr(ctx, value_expr)?
+                        .unwrap()
+                        .to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, ctx.primitives.int32)?;
+
+                    let value_expr =
+                        Int(Int32).check_value(generator, ctx.ctx, value_expr).unwrap();
+
+                    Some(value_expr)
+                }
+            })
+        };
+
+        let start = help(lower)?;
+        let stop = help(upper)?;
+        let step = help(step)?;
+
+        Ok(RustSlice { int_kind: Int32, start, stop, step })
+    }
+}

nac3core/src/codegen/stmt.rs

@@ -1,3 +1,16 @@
+use inkwell::{
+    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
+    basic_block::BasicBlock,
+    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
+    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, FunctionValue, IntValue, PointerValue},
+    IntPredicate,
+};
+use itertools::{izip, Itertools};
+
+use nac3parser::ast::{
+    Constant, ExcepthandlerKind, Expr, ExprKind, Location, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef,
+};
+
 use super::{
     classes::{ArrayLikeIndexer, ArraySliceValue, ListValue, RangeValue},
     expr::{destructure_range, gen_binop_expr},
@@ -14,17 +27,6 @@ use crate::{
         typedef::{iter_type_vars, FunSignature, Type, TypeEnum},
     },
 };
-use inkwell::{
-    attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
-    basic_block::BasicBlock,
-    types::{BasicType, BasicTypeEnum},
-    values::{BasicValue, BasicValueEnum, FunctionValue, IntValue, PointerValue},
-    IntPredicate,
-};
-use itertools::{izip, Itertools};
-use nac3parser::ast::{
-    Constant, ExcepthandlerKind, Expr, ExprKind, Location, Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef,
-};
 
 /// See [`CodeGenerator::gen_var_alloc`].
 pub fn gen_var<'ctx>(
@@ -1826,6 +1828,37 @@ pub fn gen_stmt<G: CodeGenerator>(
                 stmt.location,
             );
         }
+        StmtKind::Global { names, .. } => {
+            let registered_globals = ctx
+                .top_level
+                .definitions
+                .read()
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|def| {
+                    if let TopLevelDef::Variable { simple_name, ty, .. } = &*def.read() {
+                        Some((*simple_name, *ty))
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect_vec();
+
+            for id in names {
+                let Some((_, ty)) = registered_globals.iter().find(|(name, _)| name == id) else {
+                    return Err(format!("{id} is not a global at {}", stmt.location));
+                };
+
+                let resolver = ctx.resolver.clone();
+                let ptr = resolver
+                    .get_symbol_value(*id, ctx, generator)
+                    .map(|val| val.to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, *ty))
+                    .transpose()?
+                    .map(BasicValueEnum::into_pointer_value)
+                    .unwrap();
+
+                ctx.var_assignment.insert(*id, (ptr, None, 0));
+            }
+        }
         _ => unimplemented!(),
     };
     Ok(())

nac3core/src/codegen/test.rs

@@ -1,3 +1,20 @@
+use std::{
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+    sync::Arc,
+};
+
+use indexmap::IndexMap;
+use indoc::indoc;
+use inkwell::{
+    targets::{InitializationConfig, Target},
+    OptimizationLevel,
+};
+use nac3parser::{
+    ast::{fold::Fold, FileName, StrRef},
+    parser::parse_program,
+};
+use parking_lot::RwLock;
+
 use crate::{
     codegen::{
         classes::{ListType, NDArrayType, ProxyType, RangeType},
@@ -11,24 +28,10 @@ use crate::{
         DefinitionId, FunInstance, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef,
     },
     typecheck::{
-        type_inferencer::{FunctionData, Inferencer, PrimitiveStore},
+        type_inferencer::{FunctionData, IdentifierInfo, Inferencer, PrimitiveStore},
         typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
     },
 };
-use indexmap::IndexMap;
-use indoc::indoc;
-use inkwell::{
-    targets::{InitializationConfig, Target},
-    OptimizationLevel,
-};
-use nac3parser::ast::FileName;
-use nac3parser::{
-    ast::{fold::Fold, StrRef},
-    parser::parse_program,
-};
-use parking_lot::RwLock;
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
-use std::sync::Arc;
 
 struct Resolver {
     id_to_type: HashMap<StrRef, Type>,
@@ -64,6 +67,7 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
         &self,
         _: StrRef,
         _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
     ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>> {
         unimplemented!()
     }
@@ -138,7 +142,8 @@ fn test_primitives() {
     };
     let mut virtual_checks = Vec::new();
     let mut calls = HashMap::new();
-    let mut identifiers: HashSet<_> = ["a".into(), "b".into()].into();
+    let mut identifiers: HashMap<_, _> =
+        ["a".into(), "b".into()].map(|id| (id, IdentifierInfo::default())).into();
     let mut inferencer = Inferencer {
         top_level: &top_level,
         function_data: &mut function_data,
@@ -317,7 +322,8 @@ fn test_simple_call() {
     };
     let mut virtual_checks = Vec::new();
     let mut calls = HashMap::new();
-    let mut identifiers: HashSet<_> = ["a".into(), "foo".into()].into();
+    let mut identifiers: HashMap<_, _> =
+        ["a".into(), "foo".into()].map(|id| (id, IdentifierInfo::default())).into();
     let mut inferencer = Inferencer {
         top_level: &top_level,
         function_data: &mut function_data,

nac3core/src/lib.rs

@@ -19,6 +19,10 @@
     clippy::wildcard_imports
 )]
 
+// users of nac3core need to use the same version of these dependencies, so expose them as nac3core::*
+pub use inkwell;
+pub use nac3parser;
+
 pub mod codegen;
 pub mod symbol_resolver;
 pub mod toplevel;

nac3core/src/symbol_resolver.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,15 @@
-use std::fmt::Debug;
+use std::{
-use std::rc::Rc;
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-use std::sync::Arc;
+    fmt::{Debug, Display},
-use std::{collections::HashMap, collections::HashSet, fmt::Display};
+    rc::Rc,
+    sync::Arc,
+};
+
+use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue};
+use itertools::{chain, izip, Itertools};
+use parking_lot::RwLock;
+
+use nac3parser::ast::{Constant, Expr, Location, StrRef};
 
 use crate::{
     codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
@@ -11,10 +19,6 @@ use crate::{
         typedef::{Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
     },
 };
-use inkwell::values::{BasicValueEnum, FloatValue, IntValue, PointerValue, StructValue};
-use itertools::{chain, izip, Itertools};
-use nac3parser::ast::{Constant, Expr, Location, StrRef};
-use parking_lot::RwLock;
 
 #[derive(Clone, PartialEq, Debug)]
 pub enum SymbolValue {
@@ -365,6 +369,7 @@ pub trait SymbolResolver {
         &self,
         str: StrRef,
         ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
     ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>>;
 
     fn get_default_param_value(&self, expr: &Expr) -> Option<SymbolValue>;

nac3core/src/toplevel/builtins.rs

@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
 use std::iter::once;
 
-use helper::{debug_assert_prim_is_allowed, make_exception_fields, PrimDefDetails};
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use inkwell::{
     attributes::{Attribute, AttributeLoc},
@@ -9,13 +8,23 @@ use inkwell::{
     IntPredicate,
 };
 use itertools::Either;
+use numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys;
 use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
 
+use super::{
+    helper::{debug_assert_prim_is_allowed, extract_ndims, make_exception_fields, PrimDefDetails},
+    *,
+};
 use crate::{
     codegen::{
         builtin_fns,
         classes::{ProxyValue, RangeValue},
+        model::*,
         numpy::*,
+        object::{
+            any::AnyObject,
+            ndarray::{shape_util::parse_numpy_int_sequence, NDArrayObject},
+        },
         stmt::exn_constructor,
     },
     symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
@@ -23,8 +32,6 @@ use crate::{
     typecheck::typedef::{into_var_map, iter_type_vars, TypeVar, VarMap},
 };
 
-use super::*;
-
 type BuiltinInfo = Vec<(Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>, Option<Stmt>)>;
 
 pub fn get_exn_constructor(
@@ -511,6 +518,14 @@ impl<'a> BuiltinBuilder<'a> {
             | PrimDef::FunNpEye
             | PrimDef::FunNpIdentity => self.build_ndarray_other_factory_function(prim),
 
+            PrimDef::FunNpSize | PrimDef::FunNpShape | PrimDef::FunNpStrides => {
+                self.build_ndarray_property_getter_function(prim)
+            }
+
+            PrimDef::FunNpBroadcastTo | PrimDef::FunNpTranspose | PrimDef::FunNpReshape => {
+                self.build_ndarray_view_function(prim)
+            }
+
             PrimDef::FunStr => self.build_str_function(),
 
             PrimDef::FunFloor | PrimDef::FunFloor64 | PrimDef::FunCeil | PrimDef::FunCeil64 => {
@@ -576,10 +591,6 @@ impl<'a> BuiltinBuilder<'a> {
             | PrimDef::FunNpHypot
             | PrimDef::FunNpNextAfter => self.build_np_2ary_function(prim),
 
-            PrimDef::FunNpTranspose | PrimDef::FunNpReshape => {
-                self.build_np_sp_ndarray_function(prim)
-            }
-
             PrimDef::FunNpDot
             | PrimDef::FunNpLinalgCholesky
             | PrimDef::FunNpLinalgQr
@@ -1385,6 +1396,171 @@ impl<'a> BuiltinBuilder<'a> {
         }
     }
 
+    fn build_ndarray_property_getter_function(&mut self, prim: PrimDef) -> TopLevelDef {
+        debug_assert_prim_is_allowed(
+            prim,
+            &[PrimDef::FunNpSize, PrimDef::FunNpShape, PrimDef::FunNpStrides],
+        );
+
+        let in_ndarray_ty = self.unifier.get_fresh_var_with_range(
+            &[self.primitives.ndarray],
+            Some("T".into()),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        match prim {
+            PrimDef::FunNpSize => create_fn_by_codegen(
+                self.unifier,
+                &into_var_map([in_ndarray_ty]),
+                prim.name(),
+                self.primitives.int32,
+                &[(in_ndarray_ty.ty, "a")],
+                Box::new(|ctx, obj, fun, args, generator| {
+                    assert!(obj.is_none());
+                    assert_eq!(args.len(), 1);
+
+                    let ndarray_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
+                    let ndarray =
+                        args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, ndarray_ty)?;
+                    let ndarray = AnyObject { ty: ndarray_ty, value: ndarray };
+                    let ndarray = NDArrayObject::from_object(generator, ctx, ndarray);
+
+                    let size =
+                        ndarray.size(generator, ctx).truncate_or_bit_cast(generator, ctx, Int32);
+                    Ok(Some(size.value.as_basic_value_enum()))
+                }),
+            ),
+            PrimDef::FunNpShape | PrimDef::FunNpStrides => {
+                // The function signatures of `np_shape` an `np_size` are the same.
+                // Mixed together for convenience.
+
+                // The return type is a tuple of variable length depending on the ndims of the input ndarray.
+                let ret_ty = self.unifier.get_dummy_var().ty; // Handled by special folding
+
+                create_fn_by_codegen(
+                    self.unifier,
+                    &into_var_map([in_ndarray_ty]),
+                    prim.name(),
+                    ret_ty,
+                    &[(in_ndarray_ty.ty, "a")],
+                    Box::new(move |ctx, obj, fun, args, generator| {
+                        assert!(obj.is_none());
+                        assert_eq!(args.len(), 1);
+
+                        let ndarray_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
+                        let ndarray =
+                            args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, ndarray_ty)?;
+
+                        let ndarray = AnyObject { ty: ndarray_ty, value: ndarray };
+                        let ndarray = NDArrayObject::from_object(generator, ctx, ndarray);
+
+                        let result_tuple = match prim {
+                            PrimDef::FunNpShape => ndarray.make_shape_tuple(generator, ctx),
+                            PrimDef::FunNpStrides => ndarray.make_strides_tuple(generator, ctx),
+                            _ => unreachable!(),
+                        };
+
+                        Ok(Some(result_tuple.value.as_basic_value_enum()))
+                    }),
+                )
+            }
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Build np/sp functions that take as input `NDArray` only
+    fn build_ndarray_view_function(&mut self, prim: PrimDef) -> TopLevelDef {
+        debug_assert_prim_is_allowed(
+            prim,
+            &[PrimDef::FunNpBroadcastTo, PrimDef::FunNpTranspose, PrimDef::FunNpReshape],
+        );
+
+        let in_ndarray_ty = self.unifier.get_fresh_var_with_range(
+            &[self.primitives.ndarray],
+            Some("T".into()),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        match prim {
+            PrimDef::FunNpTranspose => {
+                create_fn_by_codegen(
+                    self.unifier,
+                    &into_var_map([in_ndarray_ty]),
+                    prim.name(),
+                    in_ndarray_ty.ty,
+                    &[(in_ndarray_ty.ty, "x")],
+                    Box::new(move |ctx, _, fun, args, generator| {
+                        let arg_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
+                        let arg_val =
+                            args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, arg_ty)?;
+
+                        let arg = AnyObject { ty: arg_ty, value: arg_val };
+                        let ndarray = NDArrayObject::from_object(generator, ctx, arg);
+
+                        let ndarray = ndarray.transpose(generator, ctx, None); // TODO: Add axes argument
+                        Ok(Some(ndarray.instance.value.as_basic_value_enum()))
+                    }),
+                )
+            }
+
+            // NOTE: on `ndarray_factory_fn_shape_arg_tvar` and
+            // the `param_ty` for `create_fn_by_codegen`.
+            //
+            // Similar to `build_ndarray_from_shape_factory_function` we delegate the responsibility of typechecking
+            // to [`typecheck::type_inferencer::Inferencer::fold_numpy_function_call_shape_argument`],
+            // and use a dummy [`TypeVar`] `ndarray_factory_fn_shape_arg_tvar` as a placeholder for `param_ty`.
+            PrimDef::FunNpBroadcastTo | PrimDef::FunNpReshape => {
+                // These two functions have the same function signature.
+                // Mixed together for convenience.
+
+                let ret_ty = self.unifier.get_dummy_var().ty; // Handled by special holding
+
+                create_fn_by_codegen(
+                    self.unifier,
+                    &VarMap::new(),
+                    prim.name(),
+                    ret_ty,
+                    &[
+                        (in_ndarray_ty.ty, "x"),
+                        (self.ndarray_factory_fn_shape_arg_tvar.ty, "shape"), // Handled by special folding
+                    ],
+                    Box::new(move |ctx, _, fun, args, generator| {
+                        let ndarray_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
+                        let ndarray_val =
+                            args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, ndarray_ty)?;
+
+                        let shape_ty = fun.0.args[1].ty;
+                        let shape_val =
+                            args[1].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, shape_ty)?;
+
+                        let ndarray = AnyObject { value: ndarray_val, ty: ndarray_ty };
+                        let ndarray = NDArrayObject::from_object(generator, ctx, ndarray);
+
+                        let shape = AnyObject { value: shape_val, ty: shape_ty };
+                        let (_, shape) = parse_numpy_int_sequence(generator, ctx, shape);
+
+                        // The ndims after reshaping is gotten from the return type of the call.
+                        let (_, ndims) = unpack_ndarray_var_tys(&mut ctx.unifier, fun.0.ret);
+                        let ndims = extract_ndims(&ctx.unifier, ndims);
+
+                        let new_ndarray = match prim {
+                            PrimDef::FunNpBroadcastTo => {
+                                ndarray.broadcast_to(generator, ctx, ndims, shape)
+                            }
+                            PrimDef::FunNpReshape => {
+                                ndarray.reshape_or_copy(generator, ctx, ndims, shape)
+                            }
+                            _ => unreachable!(),
+                        };
+                        Ok(Some(new_ndarray.instance.value.as_basic_value_enum()))
+                    }),
+                )
+            }
+
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Build the `str()` function.
     fn build_str_function(&mut self) -> TopLevelDef {
         let prim = PrimDef::FunStr;
@@ -1872,57 +2048,6 @@ impl<'a> BuiltinBuilder<'a> {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Build np/sp functions that take as input `NDArray` only
-    fn build_np_sp_ndarray_function(&mut self, prim: PrimDef) -> TopLevelDef {
-        debug_assert_prim_is_allowed(prim, &[PrimDef::FunNpTranspose, PrimDef::FunNpReshape]);
-
-        match prim {
-            PrimDef::FunNpTranspose => {
-                let ndarray_ty = self.unifier.get_fresh_var_with_range(
-                    &[self.ndarray_num_ty],
-                    Some("T".into()),
-                    None,
-                );
-                create_fn_by_codegen(
-                    self.unifier,
-                    &into_var_map([ndarray_ty]),
-                    prim.name(),
-                    ndarray_ty.ty,
-                    &[(ndarray_ty.ty, "x")],
-                    Box::new(move |ctx, _, fun, args, generator| {
-                        let arg_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
-                        let arg_val =
-                            args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, arg_ty)?;
-                        Ok(Some(ndarray_transpose(generator, ctx, (arg_ty, arg_val))?))
-                    }),
-                )
-            }
-
-            // NOTE: on `ndarray_factory_fn_shape_arg_tvar` and
-            // the `param_ty` for `create_fn_by_codegen`.
-            //
-            // Similar to `build_ndarray_from_shape_factory_function` we delegate the responsibility of typechecking
-            // to [`typecheck::type_inferencer::Inferencer::fold_numpy_function_call_shape_argument`],
-            // and use a dummy [`TypeVar`] `ndarray_factory_fn_shape_arg_tvar` as a placeholder for `param_ty`.
-            PrimDef::FunNpReshape => create_fn_by_codegen(
-                self.unifier,
-                &VarMap::new(),
-                prim.name(),
-                self.ndarray_num_ty,
-                &[(self.ndarray_num_ty, "x"), (self.ndarray_factory_fn_shape_arg_tvar.ty, "shape")],
-                Box::new(move |ctx, _, fun, args, generator| {
-                    let x1_ty = fun.0.args[0].ty;
-                    let x1_val = args[0].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, x1_ty)?;
-                    let x2_ty = fun.0.args[1].ty;
-                    let x2_val = args[1].1.clone().to_basic_value_enum(ctx, generator, x2_ty)?;
-                    Ok(Some(ndarray_reshape(generator, ctx, (x1_ty, x1_val), (x2_ty, x2_val))?))
-                }),
-            ),
-
-            _ => unreachable!(),
-        }
-    }
-
     /// Build `np_linalg` and `sp_linalg` functions
     ///
     /// The input to these functions must be floating point `NDArray`

nac3core/src/toplevel/composer.rs

@@ -1,17 +1,17 @@
-use nac3parser::ast::fold::Fold;
 use std::rc::Rc;
 
+use nac3parser::ast::{fold::Fold, ExprKind, Ident};
+
+use super::*;
 use crate::{
     codegen::{expr::get_subst_key, stmt::exn_constructor},
     symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
     typecheck::{
-        type_inferencer::{FunctionData, Inferencer},
+        type_inferencer::{FunctionData, IdentifierInfo, Inferencer},
         typedef::{TypeVar, VarMap},
     },
 };
 
-use super::*;
-
 pub struct ComposerConfig {
     pub kernel_ann: Option<&'static str>,
     pub kernel_invariant_ann: &'static str,
@@ -101,7 +101,8 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
             .iter()
             .map(|def_ast| match *def_ast.0.read() {
                 TopLevelDef::Class { name, .. } => name.to_string(),
-                TopLevelDef::Function { simple_name, .. } => simple_name.to_string(),
+                TopLevelDef::Function { simple_name, .. }
+                | TopLevelDef::Variable { simple_name, .. } => simple_name.to_string(),
             })
             .collect_vec();
 
@@ -381,13 +382,87 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                 ))
             }
 
+            ast::StmtKind::Assign { .. } => {
+                // Assignment statements can assign to (and therefore create) more than one 
+                // variable, but this function only allows returning one set of symbol information.
+                // We want to avoid changing this to return a `Vec` of symbol info, as this would 
+                // require `iter().next().unwrap()` on every variable created from a non-Assign 
+                // statement.
+                //
+                // Make callers use `register_top_level_var` instead, as it provides more
+                // fine-grained control over which symbols to register, while also simplifying the
+                // usage of this function.
+                panic!("Registration of top-level Assign statements must use TopLevelComposer::register_top_level_var (at {})", ast.location);
+            }
+
+            ast::StmtKind::AnnAssign { target, annotation, .. } => {
+                let ExprKind::Name { id: name, .. } = target.node else {
+                    return Err(format!(
+                        "global variable declaration must be an identifier (at {})",
+                        target.location
+                    ));
+                };
+
+                self.register_top_level_var(
+                    name,
+                    Some(annotation.as_ref().clone()),
+                    resolver,
+                    mod_path,
+                    target.location,
+                )
+            }
+
             _ => Err(format!(
-                "registrations of constructs other than top level classes/functions are not supported (at {})",
+                "registrations of constructs other than top level classes/functions/variables are not supported (at {})",
                 ast.location
             )),
         }
     }
 
+    /// Registers a top-level variable with the given `name` into the composer.
+    ///
+    /// `annotation` - The type annotation of the top-level variable, or [`None`] if no type
+    /// annotation is provided.
+    /// `location` - The location of the top-level variable.
+    pub fn register_top_level_var(
+        &mut self,
+        name: Ident,
+        annotation: Option<Expr>,
+        resolver: Option<Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>>,
+        mod_path: &str,
+        location: Location,
+    ) -> Result<(StrRef, DefinitionId, Option<Type>), String> {
+        if self.keyword_list.contains(&name) {
+            return Err(format!("cannot use keyword `{name}` as a class name (at {location})"));
+        }
+
+        let global_var_name =
+            if mod_path.is_empty() { name.to_string() } else { format!("{mod_path}.{name}") };
+
+        if !self.defined_names.insert(global_var_name.clone()) {
+            return Err(format!(
+                "global variable `{global_var_name}` defined twice (at {location})"
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let ty_to_be_unified = self.unifier.get_dummy_var().ty;
+        self.definition_ast_list.push((
+            RwLock::new(Self::make_top_level_variable_def(
+                global_var_name,
+                name,
+                // dummy here, unify with correct type later,
+                ty_to_be_unified,
+                annotation,
+                resolver,
+                Some(location),
+            ))
+            .into(),
+            None,
+        ));
+
+        Ok((name, DefinitionId(self.definition_ast_list.len() - 1), Some(ty_to_be_unified)))
+    }
+
     pub fn start_analysis(&mut self, inference: bool) -> Result<(), HashSet<String>> {
         self.analyze_top_level_class_type_var()?;
         self.analyze_top_level_class_bases()?;
@@ -396,6 +471,7 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
         if inference {
             self.analyze_function_instance()?;
         }
+        self.analyze_top_level_variables()?;
         Ok(())
     }
 
@@ -433,7 +509,7 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                     // things like `class A(Generic[T, V, ImportedModule.T])` is not supported
                     // i.e. only simple names are allowed in the subscript
                     // should update the TopLevelDef::Class.typevars and the TypeEnum::TObj.params
-                    ast::ExprKind::Subscript { value, slice, .. }
+                    ExprKind::Subscript { value, slice, .. }
                         if {
                             matches!(
                                 &value.node,
@@ -449,9 +525,9 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                         }
                         is_generic = true;
 
-                        let type_var_list: Vec<&ast::Expr<()>>;
+                        let type_var_list: Vec<&Expr<()>>;
                         // if `class A(Generic[T, V, G])`
-                        if let ast::ExprKind::Tuple { elts, .. } = &slice.node {
+                        if let ExprKind::Tuple { elts, .. } = &slice.node {
                             type_var_list = elts.iter().collect_vec();
                         // `class A(Generic[T])`
                         } else {
@@ -500,6 +576,7 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
             }
             Ok(())
         };
+
         let mut errors = HashSet::new();
         for (class_def, class_ast) in def_list.iter().skip(self.builtin_num) {
             if class_ast.is_none() {
@@ -853,7 +930,6 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
         let unifier = self.unifier.borrow_mut();
         let primitives_store = &self.primitives_ty;
 
-        let mut errors = HashSet::new();
         let mut analyze = |function_def: &Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>, function_ast: &Option<Stmt>| {
             let mut function_def = function_def.write();
             let function_def = &mut *function_def;
@@ -962,15 +1038,15 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                     }
                 }
 
-                let arg_with_default: Vec<(&ast::Located<ast::ArgData<()>>, Option<&ast::Expr>)> =
+                let arg_with_default: Vec<(&ast::Located<ast::ArgData<()>>, Option<&Expr>)> = args
-                    args.args
+                    .args
                     .iter()
                     .rev()
                     .zip(
                         args.defaults
                             .iter()
                             .rev()
-                                .map(|x| -> Option<&ast::Expr> { Some(x) })
+                            .map(|x| -> Option<&Expr> { Some(x) })
                             .chain(std::iter::repeat(None)),
                     )
                     .collect_vec();
@@ -1128,6 +1204,8 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
             })?;
             Ok(())
         };
+
+        let mut errors = HashSet::new();
         for (function_def, function_ast) in def_list.iter().skip(self.builtin_num) {
             if function_ast.is_none() {
                 continue;
@@ -1229,7 +1307,7 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
 
                         let arg_with_default: Vec<(
                             &ast::Located<ast::ArgData<()>>,
-                            Option<&ast::Expr>,
+                            Option<&Expr>,
                         )> = args
                             .args
                             .iter()
@@ -1238,7 +1316,7 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                                 args.defaults
                                     .iter()
                                     .rev()
-                                    .map(|x| -> Option<&ast::Expr> { Some(x) })
+                                    .map(|x| -> Option<&Expr> { Some(x) })
                                     .chain(std::iter::repeat(None)),
                             )
                             .collect_vec();
@@ -1395,7 +1473,7 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                         .map_err(|e| HashSet::from([e.to_display(unifier).to_string()]))?;
                 }
                 ast::StmtKind::AnnAssign { target, annotation, value, .. } => {
-                    if let ast::ExprKind::Name { id: attr, .. } = &target.node {
+                    if let ExprKind::Name { id: attr, .. } = &target.node {
                         if defined_fields.insert(attr.to_string()) {
                             let dummy_field_type = unifier.get_dummy_var().ty;
 
@@ -1403,7 +1481,7 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                                 None => {
                                     // handle Kernel[T], KernelInvariant[T]
                                     let (annotation, mutable) = match &annotation.node {
-                                        ast::ExprKind::Subscript { value, slice, .. }
+                                        ExprKind::Subscript { value, slice, .. }
                                             if matches!(
                                                 &value.node,
                                                 ast::ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == &core_config.kernel_invariant_ann.into()
@@ -1411,7 +1489,7 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                                         {
                                             (slice, false)
                                         }
-                                        ast::ExprKind::Subscript { value, slice, .. }
+                                        ExprKind::Subscript { value, slice, .. }
                                             if matches!(
                                                 &value.node,
                                                 ast::ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if core_config.kernel_ann.map_or(false, |c| id == &c.into())
@@ -1429,13 +1507,13 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                                 Some(boxed_expr) => {
                                     // Class attributes are set as immutable regardless
                                     let (annotation, _) = match &annotation.node {
-                                        ast::ExprKind::Subscript { slice, .. } => (slice, false),
+                                        ExprKind::Subscript { slice, .. } => (slice, false),
                                         _ if core_config.kernel_ann.is_none() => (annotation, false),
                                         _ => continue,
                                     };
 
                                     match &**boxed_expr {
-                                        ast::Located {location: _, custom: (), node: ast::ExprKind::Constant { value: v, kind: _ }} => {
+                                        ast::Located {location: _, custom: (), node: ExprKind::Constant { value: v, kind: _ }} => {
                                             // Restricting the types allowed to be defined as class attributes
                                             match v {
                                                 ast::Constant::Bool(_) | ast::Constant::Str(_) | ast::Constant::Int(_) | ast::Constant::Float(_) => {}
@@ -1702,7 +1780,6 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
             }
         }
 
-        let mut errors = HashSet::new();
         let mut analyze = |i, def: &Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>, ast: &Option<Stmt>| {
             let class_def = def.read();
             if let TopLevelDef::Class {
@@ -1845,6 +1922,8 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
             }
             Ok(())
         };
+
+        let mut errors = HashSet::new();
         for (i, (def, ast)) in definition_ast_list.iter().enumerate().skip(self.builtin_num) {
             if ast.is_none() {
                 continue;
@@ -1882,19 +1961,20 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
             if ast.is_none() {
                 return Ok(());
             }
-            let mut function_def = def.write();
+
-            if let TopLevelDef::Function {
+            let (name, simple_name, signature, resolver) = {
-                instance_to_stmt,
+                let function_def = def.read();
-                instance_to_symbol,
+                let TopLevelDef::Function { name, simple_name, signature, resolver, .. } =
-                name,
+                    &*function_def
-                simple_name,
+                else {
-                signature,
+                    return Ok(());
-                resolver,
+                };
-                ..
+
-            } = &mut *function_def
+                (name.clone(), *simple_name, *signature, resolver.clone())
-            {
+            };
-                let signature_ty_enum = unifier.get_ty(*signature);
+
-                let TypeEnum::TFunc(FunSignature { args, ret, vars }) = signature_ty_enum.as_ref()
+            let signature_ty_enum = unifier.get_ty(signature);
+            let TypeEnum::TFunc(FunSignature { args, ret, vars, .. }) = signature_ty_enum.as_ref()
             else {
                 unreachable!("must be typeenum::tfunc")
             };
@@ -2002,11 +2082,11 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                     })
                 };
                 let mut identifiers = {
-                        let mut result: HashSet<_> = HashSet::new();
+                    let mut result = HashMap::new();
                     if self_type.is_some() {
-                            result.insert("self".into());
+                        result.insert("self".into(), IdentifierInfo::default());
                     }
-                        result.extend(inst_args.iter().map(|x| x.name));
+                    result.extend(inst_args.iter().map(|x| (x.name, IdentifierInfo::default())));
                     result
                 };
                 let mut calls: HashMap<CodeLocation, CallId> = HashMap::new();
@@ -2043,23 +2123,43 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                 else {
                     unreachable!("must be function def ast")
                 };
-                    if !decorator_list.is_empty()
+
-                        && matches!(&decorator_list[0].node,
+                if !decorator_list.is_empty() {
-                            ast::ExprKind::Name{ id, .. } if id == &"extern".into())
+                    if matches!(&decorator_list[0].node, ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == &"extern".into())
-                    {
-                        instance_to_symbol.insert(String::new(), simple_name.to_string());
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                    if !decorator_list.is_empty()
-                        && matches!(&decorator_list[0].node,
-                            ast::ExprKind::Name{ id, .. } if id == &"rpc".into())
                     {
+                        let TopLevelDef::Function { instance_to_symbol, .. } = &mut *def.write()
+                        else {
+                            unreachable!()
+                        };
                         instance_to_symbol.insert(String::new(), simple_name.to_string());
                         continue;
                     }
 
-                    let fun_body = body
+                    if matches!(&decorator_list[0].node, ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == &"rpc".into())
-                        .into_iter()
+                    {
+                        let TopLevelDef::Function { instance_to_symbol, .. } = &mut *def.write()
+                        else {
+                            unreachable!()
+                        };
+                        instance_to_symbol.insert(String::new(), simple_name.to_string());
+                        continue;
+                    }
+
+                    if let ExprKind::Call { func, .. } = &decorator_list[0].node {
+                        if matches!(&func.node, ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == &"rpc".into()) {
+                            let TopLevelDef::Function { instance_to_symbol, .. } =
+                                &mut *def.write()
+                            else {
+                                unreachable!()
+                            };
+                            instance_to_symbol.insert(String::new(), simple_name.to_string());
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                let fun_body =
+                    body.into_iter()
                         .map(|b| inferencer.fold_stmt(b))
                         .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
 
@@ -2129,6 +2229,9 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                     )]));
                 }
 
+                let TopLevelDef::Function { instance_to_stmt, .. } = &mut *def.write() else {
+                    unreachable!()
+                };
                 instance_to_stmt.insert(
                     get_subst_key(
                         unifier,
@@ -2144,10 +2247,10 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
                     },
                 );
             }
-            }
 
             Ok(())
         };
+
         for (id, (def, ast)) in self.definition_ast_list.iter().enumerate().skip(self.builtin_num) {
             if ast.is_none() {
                 continue;
@@ -2161,4 +2264,59 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
         }
         Ok(())
     }
+
+    /// Step 6. Analyze and populate the types of global variables.
+    fn analyze_top_level_variables(&mut self) -> Result<(), HashSet<String>> {
+        let def_list = &self.definition_ast_list;
+        let temp_def_list = self.extract_def_list();
+        let unifier = &mut self.unifier;
+        let primitives_store = &self.primitives_ty;
+
+        let mut analyze = |variable_def: &Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>| -> Result<_, HashSet<String>> {
+            let TopLevelDef::Variable { ty: dummy_ty, ty_decl, resolver, loc, .. } =
+                &*variable_def.read()
+            else {
+                // not top level variable def, skip
+                return Ok(());
+            };
+
+            let resolver = &**resolver.as_ref().unwrap();
+
+            if let Some(ty_decl) = ty_decl {
+                let ty_annotation = parse_ast_to_type_annotation_kinds(
+                    resolver,
+                    &temp_def_list,
+                    unifier,
+                    primitives_store,
+                    ty_decl,
+                    HashMap::new(),
+                )?;
+                let ty_from_ty_annotation = get_type_from_type_annotation_kinds(
+                    &temp_def_list,
+                    unifier,
+                    primitives_store,
+                    &ty_annotation,
+                    &mut None,
+                )?;
+
+                unifier.unify(*dummy_ty, ty_from_ty_annotation).map_err(|e| {
+                    HashSet::from([e.at(Some(loc.unwrap())).to_display(unifier).to_string()])
+                })?;
+            }
+
+            Ok(())
+        };
+
+        let mut errors = HashSet::new();
+        for (variable_def, _) in def_list.iter().skip(self.builtin_num) {
+            if let Err(e) = analyze(variable_def) {
+                errors.extend(e);
+            }
+        }
+        if !errors.is_empty() {
+            return Err(errors);
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
 }

nac3core/src/toplevel/helper.rs

@@ -1,14 +1,17 @@
 use std::convert::TryInto;
 
-use crate::symbol_resolver::SymbolValue;
-use crate::toplevel::numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys;
-use crate::typecheck::typedef::{into_var_map, iter_type_vars, Mapping, TypeVarId, VarMap};
-use ast::ExprKind;
-use nac3parser::ast::{Constant, Location};
 use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
 use strum_macros::EnumIter;
 
+use ast::ExprKind;
+use nac3parser::ast::{Constant, Location};
+
 use super::*;
+use crate::{
+    symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
+    toplevel::numpy::unpack_ndarray_var_tys,
+    typecheck::typedef::{into_var_map, iter_type_vars, Mapping, TypeVarId, VarMap},
+};
 
 /// All primitive types and functions in nac3core.
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, EnumIter, PartialEq, Eq)]
@@ -53,6 +56,16 @@ pub enum PrimDef {
     FunNpEye,
     FunNpIdentity,
 
+    // NumPy ndarray property getters
+    FunNpSize,
+    FunNpShape,
+    FunNpStrides,
+
+    // NumPy ndarray view functions
+    FunNpBroadcastTo,
+    FunNpTranspose,
+    FunNpReshape,
+
     // Miscellaneous NumPy & SciPy functions
     FunNpRound,
     FunNpFloor,
@@ -100,8 +113,6 @@ pub enum PrimDef {
     FunNpLdExp,
     FunNpHypot,
     FunNpNextAfter,
-    FunNpTranspose,
-    FunNpReshape,
 
     // Linalg functions
     FunNpDot,
@@ -239,6 +250,16 @@ impl PrimDef {
             PrimDef::FunNpEye => fun("np_eye", None),
             PrimDef::FunNpIdentity => fun("np_identity", None),
 
+            // NumPy NDArray property getters,
+            PrimDef::FunNpSize => fun("np_size", None),
+            PrimDef::FunNpShape => fun("np_shape", None),
+            PrimDef::FunNpStrides => fun("np_strides", None),
+
+            // NumPy NDArray view functions
+            PrimDef::FunNpBroadcastTo => fun("np_broadcast_to", None),
+            PrimDef::FunNpTranspose => fun("np_transpose", None),
+            PrimDef::FunNpReshape => fun("np_reshape", None),
+
             // Miscellaneous NumPy & SciPy functions
             PrimDef::FunNpRound => fun("np_round", None),
             PrimDef::FunNpFloor => fun("np_floor", None),
@@ -286,8 +307,6 @@ impl PrimDef {
             PrimDef::FunNpLdExp => fun("np_ldexp", None),
             PrimDef::FunNpHypot => fun("np_hypot", None),
             PrimDef::FunNpNextAfter => fun("np_nextafter", None),
-            PrimDef::FunNpTranspose => fun("np_transpose", None),
-            PrimDef::FunNpReshape => fun("np_reshape", None),
 
             // Linalg functions
             PrimDef::FunNpDot => fun("np_dot", None),
@@ -388,6 +407,9 @@ impl TopLevelDef {
                     r
                 }
             ),
+            TopLevelDef::Variable { name, ty, .. } => {
+                format!("Variable {{ name: {name:?}, ty: {:?} }}", unifier.stringify(*ty),)
+            }
         }
     }
 }
@@ -589,6 +611,18 @@ impl TopLevelComposer {
         }
     }
 
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn make_top_level_variable_def(
+        name: String,
+        simple_name: StrRef,
+        ty: Type,
+        ty_decl: Option<Expr>,
+        resolver: Option<Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>>,
+        loc: Option<Location>,
+    ) -> TopLevelDef {
+        TopLevelDef::Variable { name, simple_name, ty, ty_decl, resolver, loc }
+    }
+
     #[must_use]
     pub fn make_class_method_name(mut class_name: String, method_name: &str) -> String {
         class_name.push('.');
@@ -1118,3 +1152,23 @@ pub fn arraylike_get_ndims(unifier: &mut Unifier, ty: Type) -> u64 {
         _ => 0,
     }
 }
+
+/// Extract an ndarray's `ndims` [type][`Type`] in `u64`. Panic if not possible.
+/// The `ndims` must only contain 1 value.
+#[must_use]
+pub fn extract_ndims(unifier: &Unifier, ndims_ty: Type) -> u64 {
+    let ndims_ty_enum = unifier.get_ty_immutable(ndims_ty);
+    let TypeEnum::TLiteral { values, .. } = &*ndims_ty_enum else {
+        panic!("ndims_ty should be a TLiteral");
+    };
+
+    assert_eq!(values.len(), 1, "ndims_ty TLiteral should only contain 1 value");
+
+    let ndims = values[0].clone();
+    u64::try_from(ndims).unwrap()
+}
+
+/// Return an ndarray's `ndims` as a typechecker [`Type`] from its `u64` value.
+pub fn create_ndims(unifier: &mut Unifier, ndims: u64) -> Type {
+    unifier.get_fresh_literal(vec![SymbolValue::U64(ndims)], None)
+}

nac3core/src/toplevel/mod.rs

@@ -6,24 +6,24 @@ use std::{
     sync::Arc,
 };
 
-use super::codegen::CodeGenContext;
-use super::typecheck::type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore;
-use super::typecheck::typedef::{
-    FunSignature, FuncArg, SharedUnifier, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap,
-};
-use crate::{
-    codegen::CodeGenerator,
-    symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, ValueEnum},
-    typecheck::{
-        type_inferencer::CodeLocation,
-        typedef::{CallId, TypeVarId},
-    },
-};
 use inkwell::values::BasicValueEnum;
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use nac3parser::ast::{self, Location, Stmt, StrRef};
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
 
+use nac3parser::ast::{self, Expr, Location, Stmt, StrRef};
+
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, ValueEnum},
+    typecheck::{
+        type_inferencer::{CodeLocation, PrimitiveStore},
+        typedef::{
+            CallId, FunSignature, FuncArg, SharedUnifier, Type, TypeEnum, TypeVarId, Unifier,
+            VarMap,
+        },
+    },
+};
+
 #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Clone, Copy, Hash, Debug)]
 pub struct DefinitionId(pub usize);
 
@@ -148,6 +148,25 @@ pub enum TopLevelDef {
         /// Definition location.
         loc: Option<Location>,
     },
+    Variable {
+        /// Qualified name of the global variable, should be unique globally.
+        name: String,
+
+        /// Simple name, the same as in method/function definition.
+        simple_name: StrRef,
+
+        /// Type of the global variable.
+        ty: Type,
+
+        /// The declared type of the global variable, or [`None`] if no type annotation is provided.
+        ty_decl: Option<Expr>,
+
+        /// Symbol resolver of the module defined the class.
+        resolver: Option<Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>>,
+
+        /// Definition location.
+        loc: Option<Location>,
+    },
 }
 
 pub struct TopLevelContext {

nac3core/src/toplevel/numpy.rs

@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
 use crate::{
     toplevel::helper::PrimDef,
     typecheck::{
@@ -5,7 +7,6 @@ use crate::{
         typedef::{Type, TypeEnum, TypeVarId, Unifier, VarMap},
     },
 };
-use itertools::Itertools;
 
 /// Creates a `ndarray` [`Type`] with the given type arguments.
 ///

nac3core/src/toplevel/test.rs

@@ -1,21 +1,24 @@
+use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+
+use indoc::indoc;
+use parking_lot::Mutex;
+use test_case::test_case;
+
+use nac3parser::{
+    ast::{fold::Fold, FileName},
+    parser::parse_program,
+};
+
 use super::*;
-use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
-use crate::typecheck::typedef::into_var_map;
 use crate::{
     codegen::CodeGenContext,
     symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, ValueEnum},
-    toplevel::DefinitionId,
+    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, DefinitionId},
     typecheck::{
         type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore,
-        typedef::{Type, Unifier},
+        typedef::{into_var_map, Type, Unifier},
     },
 };
-use indoc::indoc;
-use nac3parser::ast::FileName;
-use nac3parser::{ast::fold::Fold, parser::parse_program};
-use parking_lot::Mutex;
-use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
-use test_case::test_case;
 
 struct ResolverInternal {
     id_to_type: Mutex<HashMap<StrRef, Type>>,
@@ -62,6 +65,7 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
         &self,
         _: StrRef,
         _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
     ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>> {
         unimplemented!()
     }

nac3core/src/toplevel/type_annotation.rs

@@ -1,10 +1,14 @@
-use super::*;
-use crate::symbol_resolver::SymbolValue;
-use crate::toplevel::helper::{PrimDef, PrimDefDetails};
-use crate::typecheck::typedef::VarMap;
-use nac3parser::ast::Constant;
 use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
 
+use nac3parser::ast::Constant;
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::{
+    symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
+    toplevel::helper::{PrimDef, PrimDefDetails},
+    typecheck::typedef::VarMap,
+};
+
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
 pub enum TypeAnnotation {
     Primitive(Type),

nac3core/src/typecheck/function_check.rs

@@ -1,13 +1,19 @@
-use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
+use std::{
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+    iter::once,
+};
 
-use super::type_inferencer::Inferencer;
-use super::typedef::{Type, TypeEnum};
 use nac3parser::ast::{
     self, Constant, Expr, ExprKind,
     Operator::{LShift, RShift},
     Stmt, StmtKind, StrRef,
 };
-use std::{collections::HashSet, iter::once};
+
+use super::{
+    type_inferencer::{DeclarationSource, IdentifierInfo, Inferencer},
+    typedef::{Type, TypeEnum},
+};
+use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
 
 impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
     fn should_have_value(&mut self, expr: &Expr<Option<Type>>) -> Result<(), HashSet<String>> {
@@ -21,15 +27,29 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
     fn check_pattern(
         &mut self,
         pattern: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
-        defined_identifiers: &mut HashSet<StrRef>,
+        defined_identifiers: &mut HashMap<StrRef, IdentifierInfo>,
     ) -> Result<(), HashSet<String>> {
         match &pattern.node {
             ExprKind::Name { id, .. } if id == &"none".into() => {
                 Err(HashSet::from([format!("cannot assign to a `none` (at {})", pattern.location)]))
             }
             ExprKind::Name { id, .. } => {
-                if !defined_identifiers.contains(id) {
+                // If `id` refers to a declared symbol, reject this assignment if it is used in the
-                    defined_identifiers.insert(*id);
+                // context of an (implicit) global variable
+                if let Some(id_info) = defined_identifiers.get(id) {
+                    if matches!(
+                        id_info.source,
+                        DeclarationSource::Global { is_explicit: Some(false) }
+                    ) {
+                        return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
+                            "cannot access local variable '{id}' before it is declared (at {})",
+                            pattern.location
+                        )]));
+                    }
+                }
+
+                if !defined_identifiers.contains_key(id) {
+                    defined_identifiers.insert(*id, IdentifierInfo::default());
                 }
                 self.should_have_value(pattern)?;
                 Ok(())
@@ -69,7 +89,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
     fn check_expr(
         &mut self,
         expr: &Expr<Option<Type>>,
-        defined_identifiers: &mut HashSet<StrRef>,
+        defined_identifiers: &mut HashMap<StrRef, IdentifierInfo>,
     ) -> Result<(), HashSet<String>> {
         // there are some cases where the custom field is None
         if let Some(ty) = &expr.custom {
@@ -90,7 +110,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                     return Ok(());
                 }
                 self.should_have_value(expr)?;
-                if !defined_identifiers.contains(id) {
+                if !defined_identifiers.contains_key(id) {
                     match self.function_data.resolver.get_symbol_type(
                         self.unifier,
                         &self.top_level.definitions.read(),
@@ -98,7 +118,22 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                         *id,
                     ) {
                         Ok(_) => {
-                            self.defined_identifiers.insert(*id);
+                            let is_global = self.is_id_global(*id);
+
+                            defined_identifiers.insert(
+                                *id,
+                                IdentifierInfo {
+                                    source: match is_global {
+                                        Some(true) => {
+                                            DeclarationSource::Global { is_explicit: Some(false) }
+                                        }
+                                        Some(false) => {
+                                            DeclarationSource::Global { is_explicit: None }
+                                        }
+                                        None => DeclarationSource::Local,
+                                    },
+                                },
+                            );
                         }
                         Err(e) => {
                             return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
@@ -171,9 +206,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                 let mut defined_identifiers = defined_identifiers.clone();
                 for arg in &args.args {
                     // TODO: should we check the types here?
-                    if !defined_identifiers.contains(&arg.node.arg) {
+                    defined_identifiers.entry(arg.node.arg).or_default();
-                        defined_identifiers.insert(arg.node.arg);
-                    }
                 }
                 self.check_expr(body, &mut defined_identifiers)?;
             }
@@ -236,7 +269,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
     fn check_stmt(
         &mut self,
         stmt: &Stmt<Option<Type>>,
-        defined_identifiers: &mut HashSet<StrRef>,
+        defined_identifiers: &mut HashMap<StrRef, IdentifierInfo>,
     ) -> Result<bool, HashSet<String>> {
         match &stmt.node {
             StmtKind::For { target, iter, body, orelse, .. } => {
@@ -262,9 +295,11 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                 let body_returned = self.check_block(body, &mut body_identifiers)?;
                 let orelse_returned = self.check_block(orelse, &mut orelse_identifiers)?;
 
-                for ident in &body_identifiers {
+                for ident in body_identifiers.keys() {
-                    if !defined_identifiers.contains(ident) && orelse_identifiers.contains(ident) {
+                    if !defined_identifiers.contains_key(ident)
-                        defined_identifiers.insert(*ident);
+                        && orelse_identifiers.contains_key(ident)
+                    {
+                        defined_identifiers.insert(*ident, IdentifierInfo::default());
                     }
                 }
                 Ok(body_returned && orelse_returned)
@@ -295,7 +330,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                     let mut defined_identifiers = defined_identifiers.clone();
                     let ast::ExcepthandlerKind::ExceptHandler { name, body, .. } = &handler.node;
                     if let Some(name) = name {
-                        defined_identifiers.insert(*name);
+                        defined_identifiers.insert(*name, IdentifierInfo::default());
                     }
                     self.check_block(body, &mut defined_identifiers)?;
                 }
@@ -359,6 +394,44 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                 }
                 Ok(true)
             }
+            StmtKind::Global { names, .. } => {
+                for id in names {
+                    if let Some(id_info) = defined_identifiers.get(id) {
+                        if id_info.source == DeclarationSource::Local {
+                            return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
+                                "name '{id}' is referenced prior to global declaration at {}",
+                                stmt.location,
+                            )]));
+                        }
+
+                        continue;
+                    }
+
+                    match self.function_data.resolver.get_symbol_type(
+                        self.unifier,
+                        &self.top_level.definitions.read(),
+                        self.primitives,
+                        *id,
+                    ) {
+                        Ok(_) => {
+                            defined_identifiers.insert(
+                                *id,
+                                IdentifierInfo {
+                                    source: DeclarationSource::Global { is_explicit: Some(true) },
+                                },
+                            );
+                        }
+                        Err(e) => {
+                            return Err(HashSet::from([format!(
+                                "type error at identifier `{}` ({}) at {}",
+                                id, e, stmt.location
+                            )]))
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Ok(false)
+            }
             // break, raise, etc.
             _ => Ok(false),
         }
@@ -367,7 +440,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
     pub fn check_block(
         &mut self,
         block: &[Stmt<Option<Type>>],
-        defined_identifiers: &mut HashSet<StrRef>,
+        defined_identifiers: &mut HashMap<StrRef, IdentifierInfo>,
     ) -> Result<bool, HashSet<String>> {
         let mut ret = false;
         for stmt in block {

nac3core/src/typecheck/magic_methods.rs

@@ -1,17 +1,21 @@
-use crate::symbol_resolver::SymbolValue;
+use std::{cmp::max, collections::HashMap, rc::Rc};
-use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
+
-use crate::toplevel::numpy::{make_ndarray_ty, unpack_ndarray_var_tys};
+use itertools::{iproduct, Itertools};
-use crate::typecheck::{
+use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
+
+use nac3parser::ast::{Cmpop, Operator, StrRef, Unaryop};
+
+use crate::{
+    symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
+    toplevel::{
+        helper::PrimDef,
+        numpy::{make_ndarray_ty, unpack_ndarray_var_tys},
+    },
+    typecheck::{
         type_inferencer::*,
         typedef::{FunSignature, FuncArg, Type, TypeEnum, Unifier, VarMap},
+    },
 };
-use itertools::{iproduct, Itertools};
-use nac3parser::ast::StrRef;
-use nac3parser::ast::{Cmpop, Operator, Unaryop};
-use std::cmp::max;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::rc::Rc;
-use strum::IntoEnumIterator;
 
 /// The variant of a binary operator.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]

nac3core/src/typecheck/type_error.rs

@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
-use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::{collections::HashMap, fmt::Display};
-use std::fmt::Display;
 
-use crate::typecheck::{magic_methods::HasOpInfo, typedef::TypeEnum};
+use itertools::Itertools;
+
+use nac3parser::ast::{Cmpop, Location, StrRef};
 
 use super::{
     magic_methods::Binop,
     typedef::{RecordKey, Type, Unifier},
 };
-use itertools::Itertools;
+use crate::typecheck::{magic_methods::HasOpInfo, typedef::TypeEnum};
-use nac3parser::ast::{Cmpop, Location, StrRef};
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub enum TypeErrorKind {

nac3core/src/typecheck/type_inferencer/mod.rs

@@ -1,32 +1,36 @@
-use std::cmp::max;
+use std::{
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+    cell::RefCell,
-use std::convert::{From, TryInto};
+    cmp::max,
-use std::iter::once;
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-use std::{cell::RefCell, sync::Arc};
+    convert::{From, TryInto},
+    iter::{self, once},
+    sync::Arc,
+};
+
+use itertools::{izip, Itertools};
+
+use nac3parser::ast::{
+    self,
+    fold::{self, Fold},
+    Arguments, Comprehension, ExprContext, ExprKind, Ident, Located, Location, StrRef,
+};
 
 use super::{
     magic_methods::*,
     type_error::{TypeError, TypeErrorKind},
     typedef::{
-        into_var_map, iter_type_vars, Call, CallId, FunSignature, FuncArg, OperatorInfo,
+        into_var_map, iter_type_vars, Call, CallId, FunSignature, FuncArg, Mapping, OperatorInfo,
         RecordField, RecordKey, Type, TypeEnum, TypeVar, Unifier, VarMap,
     },
 };
-use crate::toplevel::type_annotation::TypeAnnotation;
 use crate::{
     symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, SymbolValue},
     toplevel::{
         helper::{arraylike_flatten_element_type, arraylike_get_ndims, PrimDef},
         numpy::{make_ndarray_ty, unpack_ndarray_var_tys},
+        type_annotation::TypeAnnotation,
         TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef,
     },
-    typecheck::typedef::Mapping,
-};
-use itertools::{izip, Itertools};
-use nac3parser::ast::{
-    self,
-    fold::{self, Fold},
-    Arguments, Comprehension, ExprContext, ExprKind, Located, Location, StrRef,
 };
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -84,6 +88,40 @@ impl PrimitiveStore {
     }
 }
 
+/// The location where an identifier declaration refers to.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum DeclarationSource {
+    /// Local scope.
+    Local,
+
+    /// Global scope.
+    Global {
+        /// Whether the identifier is declared by the use of `global` statement. This field is
+        /// [`None`] if the identifier does not refer to a variable.
+        is_explicit: Option<bool>,
+    },
+}
+
+/// Information regarding a defined identifier.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub struct IdentifierInfo {
+    /// Whether this identifier refers to a global variable.
+    pub source: DeclarationSource,
+}
+
+impl Default for IdentifierInfo {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        IdentifierInfo { source: DeclarationSource::Local }
+    }
+}
+
+impl IdentifierInfo {
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new() -> IdentifierInfo {
+        IdentifierInfo::default()
+    }
+}
+
 pub struct FunctionData {
     pub resolver: Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>,
     pub return_type: Option<Type>,
@@ -92,7 +130,7 @@ pub struct FunctionData {
 
 pub struct Inferencer<'a> {
     pub top_level: &'a TopLevelContext,
-    pub defined_identifiers: HashSet<StrRef>,
+    pub defined_identifiers: HashMap<StrRef, IdentifierInfo>,
     pub function_data: &'a mut FunctionData,
     pub unifier: &'a mut Unifier,
     pub primitives: &'a PrimitiveStore,
@@ -224,9 +262,7 @@ impl<'a> Fold<()> for Inferencer<'a> {
                                 handler.location,
                             ));
                             if let Some(name) = name {
-                                if !self.defined_identifiers.contains(&name) {
+                                self.defined_identifiers.entry(name).or_default();
-                                    self.defined_identifiers.insert(name);
-                                }
                                 if let Some(old_typ) = self.variable_mapping.insert(name, typ) {
                                     let loc = handler.location;
                                     self.unifier.unify(old_typ, typ).map_err(|e| {
@@ -378,6 +414,7 @@ impl<'a> Fold<()> for Inferencer<'a> {
             | ast::StmtKind::Continue { .. }
             | ast::StmtKind::Expr { .. }
             | ast::StmtKind::For { .. }
+            | ast::StmtKind::Global { .. }
             | ast::StmtKind::Pass { .. }
             | ast::StmtKind::Try { .. } => {}
             ast::StmtKind::If { test, .. } | ast::StmtKind::While { test, .. } => {
@@ -549,7 +586,7 @@ impl<'a> Fold<()> for Inferencer<'a> {
                         unreachable!("must be tobj")
                     }
                 } else {
-                    if !self.defined_identifiers.contains(id) {
+                    if !self.defined_identifiers.contains_key(id) {
                         match self.function_data.resolver.get_symbol_type(
                             self.unifier,
                             &self.top_level.definitions.read(),
@@ -557,7 +594,22 @@ impl<'a> Fold<()> for Inferencer<'a> {
                             *id,
                         ) {
                             Ok(_) => {
-                                self.defined_identifiers.insert(*id);
+                                let is_global = self.is_id_global(*id);
+
+                                self.defined_identifiers.insert(
+                                    *id,
+                                    IdentifierInfo {
+                                        source: match is_global {
+                                            Some(true) => DeclarationSource::Global {
+                                                is_explicit: Some(false),
+                                            },
+                                            Some(false) => {
+                                                DeclarationSource::Global { is_explicit: None }
+                                            }
+                                            None => DeclarationSource::Local,
+                                        },
+                                    },
+                                );
                             }
                             Err(e) => {
                                 return report_error(
@@ -622,8 +674,8 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
     fn infer_pattern<T>(&mut self, pattern: &ast::Expr<T>) -> Result<(), InferenceError> {
         match &pattern.node {
             ExprKind::Name { id, .. } => {
-                if !self.defined_identifiers.contains(id) {
+                if !self.defined_identifiers.contains_key(id) {
-                    self.defined_identifiers.insert(*id);
+                    self.defined_identifiers.insert(*id, IdentifierInfo::default());
                 }
                 Ok(())
             }
@@ -732,8 +784,8 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
         let mut defined_identifiers = self.defined_identifiers.clone();
         for arg in &args.args {
             let name = &arg.node.arg;
-            if !defined_identifiers.contains(name) {
+            if !defined_identifiers.contains_key(name) {
-                defined_identifiers.insert(*name);
+                defined_identifiers.insert(*name, IdentifierInfo::default());
             }
         }
         let fn_args: Vec<_> = args
@@ -1183,6 +1235,45 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
             }));
         }
 
+        if ["np_shape".into(), "np_strides".into()].contains(id) && args.len() == 1 {
+            let ndarray = self.fold_expr(args.remove(0))?;
+
+            let ndims = arraylike_get_ndims(self.unifier, ndarray.custom.unwrap());
+
+            // Make a tuple of size `ndims` full of int32 (TODO: Make it usize)
+            let ret_ty = TypeEnum::TTuple {
+                ty: iter::repeat(self.primitives.int32).take(ndims as usize).collect_vec(),
+                is_vararg_ctx: false,
+            };
+            let ret_ty = self.unifier.add_ty(ret_ty);
+
+            let func_ty = TypeEnum::TFunc(FunSignature {
+                args: vec![FuncArg {
+                    name: "a".into(),
+                    default_value: None,
+                    ty: ndarray.custom.unwrap(),
+                    is_vararg: false,
+                }],
+                ret: ret_ty,
+                vars: VarMap::new(),
+            });
+            let func_ty = self.unifier.add_ty(func_ty);
+
+            return Ok(Some(Located {
+                location,
+                custom: Some(ret_ty),
+                node: ExprKind::Call {
+                    func: Box::new(Located {
+                        custom: Some(func_ty),
+                        location: func.location,
+                        node: ExprKind::Name { id: *id, ctx: *ctx },
+                    }),
+                    args: vec![ndarray],
+                    keywords: vec![],
+                },
+            }));
+        }
+
         if id == &"np_dot".into() {
             let arg0 = self.fold_expr(args.remove(0))?;
             let arg1 = self.fold_expr(args.remove(0))?;
@@ -1504,7 +1595,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
             }));
         }
         // 2-argument ndarray n-dimensional factory functions
-        if id == &"np_reshape".into() && args.len() == 2 {
+        if ["np_reshape".into(), "np_broadcast_to".into()].contains(id) && args.len() == 2 {
             let arg0 = self.fold_expr(args.remove(0))?;
 
             let shape_expr = args.remove(0);
@@ -1550,36 +1641,29 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
         }
         // 2-argument ndarray n-dimensional creation functions
         if id == &"np_full".into() && args.len() == 2 {
-            let ExprKind::List { elts, .. } = &args[0].node else {
+            // Parse arguments
-                return report_error(
+            let shape_expr = args.remove(0);
-                    format!(
+            let (ndims, shape) =
-                        "Expected List literal for first argument of {id}, got {}",
+                self.fold_numpy_function_call_shape_argument(*id, 0, shape_expr)?; // Special handling for `shape`
-                        args[0].node.name()
-                    )
-                    .as_str(),
-                    args[0].location,
-                );
-            };
 
-            let ndims = elts.len() as u64;
+            let fill_value = self.fold_expr(args.remove(0))?;
 
-            let arg0 = self.fold_expr(args.remove(0))?;
+            // Build the return type
-            let arg1 = self.fold_expr(args.remove(0))?;
+            let dtype = fill_value.custom.unwrap();
-
-            let ty = arg1.custom.unwrap();
             let ndims = self.unifier.get_fresh_literal(vec![SymbolValue::U64(ndims)], None);
-            let ret = make_ndarray_ty(self.unifier, self.primitives, Some(ty), Some(ndims));
+            let ret = make_ndarray_ty(self.unifier, self.primitives, Some(dtype), Some(ndims));
+
             let custom = self.unifier.add_ty(TypeEnum::TFunc(FunSignature {
                 args: vec![
                     FuncArg {
                         name: "shape".into(),
-                        ty: arg0.custom.unwrap(),
+                        ty: shape.custom.unwrap(),
                         default_value: None,
                         is_vararg: false,
                     },
                     FuncArg {
                         name: "fill_value".into(),
-                        ty: arg1.custom.unwrap(),
+                        ty: fill_value.custom.unwrap(),
                         default_value: None,
                         is_vararg: false,
                     },
@@ -1597,7 +1681,7 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
                         location: func.location,
                         node: ExprKind::Name { id: *id, ctx: *ctx },
                     }),
-                    args: vec![arg0, arg1],
+                    args: vec![shape, fill_value],
                     keywords: vec![],
                 },
             }));
@@ -2640,4 +2724,22 @@ impl<'a> Inferencer<'a> {
         self.constrain(body.custom.unwrap(), orelse.custom.unwrap(), &body.location)?;
         Ok(body.custom.unwrap())
     }
+
+    /// Determines whether the given `id` refers to a global symbol.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `Some(true)` if `id` refers to a global variable, `Some(false)` if `id` refers to a
+    /// class/function, and `None` if `id` refers to a local symbol.
+    pub(super) fn is_id_global(&self, id: Ident) -> Option<bool> {
+        self.top_level
+            .definitions
+            .read()
+            .iter()
+            .map(|def| match *def.read() {
+                TopLevelDef::Class { name, .. } => (name, false),
+                TopLevelDef::Function { simple_name, .. } => (simple_name, false),
+                TopLevelDef::Variable { simple_name, .. } => (simple_name, true),
+            })
+            .find(|(global, _)| global == &id)
+            .map(|(_, has_explicit_prop)| has_explicit_prop)
+    }
 }

nac3core/src/typecheck/type_inferencer/test.rs

@@ -1,18 +1,20 @@
-use super::super::{magic_methods::with_fields, typedef::*};
+use std::iter::zip;
-use super::*;
+
-use crate::{
-    codegen::CodeGenContext,
-    symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
-    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
-};
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use indoc::indoc;
-use nac3parser::ast::FileName;
-use nac3parser::parser::parse_program;
 use parking_lot::RwLock;
-use std::iter::zip;
 use test_case::test_case;
 
+use nac3parser::{ast::FileName, parser::parse_program};
+
+use super::*;
+use crate::{
+    codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    symbol_resolver::ValueEnum,
+    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
+    typecheck::{magic_methods::with_fields, typedef::*},
+};
+
 struct Resolver {
     id_to_type: HashMap<StrRef, Type>,
     id_to_def: HashMap<StrRef, DefinitionId>,
@@ -41,6 +43,7 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
         &self,
         _: StrRef,
         _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        _: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
     ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>> {
         unimplemented!()
     }
@@ -517,7 +520,7 @@ impl TestEnvironment {
             primitives: &mut self.primitives,
             virtual_checks: &mut self.virtual_checks,
             calls: &mut self.calls,
-            defined_identifiers: HashSet::default(),
+            defined_identifiers: HashMap::default(),
             in_handler: false,
         }
     }
@@ -593,8 +596,9 @@ fn test_basic(source: &str, mapping: &HashMap<&str, &str>, virtuals: &[(&str, &s
     println!("source:\n{source}");
     let mut env = TestEnvironment::new();
     let id_to_name = std::mem::take(&mut env.id_to_name);
-    let mut defined_identifiers: HashSet<_> = env.identifier_mapping.keys().copied().collect();
+    let mut defined_identifiers: HashMap<_, _> =
-    defined_identifiers.insert("virtual".into());
+        env.identifier_mapping.keys().copied().map(|id| (id, IdentifierInfo::default())).collect();
+    defined_identifiers.insert("virtual".into(), IdentifierInfo::default());
     let mut inferencer = env.get_inferencer();
     inferencer.defined_identifiers.clone_from(&defined_identifiers);
     let statements = parse_program(source, FileName::default()).unwrap();
@@ -739,8 +743,9 @@ fn test_primitive_magic_methods(source: &str, mapping: &HashMap<&str, &str>) {
     println!("source:\n{source}");
     let mut env = TestEnvironment::basic_test_env();
     let id_to_name = std::mem::take(&mut env.id_to_name);
-    let mut defined_identifiers: HashSet<_> = env.identifier_mapping.keys().copied().collect();
+    let mut defined_identifiers: HashMap<_, _> =
-    defined_identifiers.insert("virtual".into());
+        env.identifier_mapping.keys().copied().map(|id| (id, IdentifierInfo::default())).collect();
+    defined_identifiers.insert("virtual".into(), IdentifierInfo::default());
     let mut inferencer = env.get_inferencer();
     inferencer.defined_identifiers.clone_from(&defined_identifiers);
     let statements = parse_program(source, FileName::default()).unwrap();

nac3core/src/typecheck/typedef/mod.rs

@@ -1,21 +1,28 @@
-use super::magic_methods::{Binop, HasOpInfo};
+use std::{
-use super::type_error::{TypeError, TypeErrorKind};
+    borrow::Cow,
-use super::unification_table::{UnificationKey, UnificationTable};
+    cell::RefCell,
-use crate::symbol_resolver::SymbolValue;
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-use crate::toplevel::helper::PrimDef;
+    fmt::{self, Display},
-use crate::toplevel::{DefinitionId, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef};
+    iter::{repeat, zip},
-use crate::typecheck::magic_methods::OpInfo;
+    rc::Rc,
-use crate::typecheck::type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore;
+    sync::{Arc, Mutex},
+};
+
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use itertools::{repeat_n, Itertools};
+
 use nac3parser::ast::{Cmpop, Location, StrRef, Unaryop};
-use std::cell::RefCell;
+
-use std::collections::HashMap;
+use super::{
-use std::fmt::{self, Display};
+    magic_methods::{Binop, HasOpInfo},
-use std::iter::{repeat, zip};
+    type_error::{TypeError, TypeErrorKind},
-use std::rc::Rc;
+    unification_table::{UnificationKey, UnificationTable},
-use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
+};
-use std::{borrow::Cow, collections::HashSet};
+use crate::{
+    symbol_resolver::SymbolValue,
+    toplevel::{helper::PrimDef, DefinitionId, TopLevelContext, TopLevelDef},
+    typecheck::{magic_methods::OpInfo, type_inferencer::PrimitiveStore},
+};
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod test;
@@ -670,8 +677,8 @@ impl Unifier {
         let num_args = posargs.len() + kwargs.len();
 
         // Now we check the arguments against the parameters,
-        // and depending on what `call_info` is, we might change how the behavior `unify_call()`
+        // and depending on what `call_info` is, we might change how `unify_call()` behaves
-        // in hopes to improve user error messages when type checking fails.
+        // to improve user error messages when type checking fails.
         match operator_info {
             Some(OperatorInfo::IsBinaryOp { self_type, operator }) => {
                 // The call is written in the form of (say) `a + b`.

nac3core/src/typecheck/typedef/test.rs

@@ -1,10 +1,12 @@
-use super::super::magic_methods::with_fields;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
-use super::*;
+
 use indoc::indoc;
 use itertools::Itertools;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
 use test_case::test_case;
 
+use super::*;
+use crate::typecheck::magic_methods::with_fields;
+
 impl Unifier {
     /// Check whether two types are equal.
     fn eq(&mut self, a: Type, b: Type) -> bool {

nac3ld/src/lib.rs

@@ -21,13 +21,12 @@
     clippy::wildcard_imports
 )]
 
+use std::{collections::HashMap, mem, ptr, slice, str};
+
+use byteorder::{ByteOrder, LittleEndian};
+
 use dwarf::*;
 use elf::*;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::{mem, ptr, slice, str};
-
-extern crate byteorder;
-use byteorder::{ByteOrder, LittleEndian};
 
 mod dwarf;
 mod elf;

nac3parser/Cargo.toml

@@ -8,15 +8,15 @@ license = "MIT"
 edition = "2021"
 
 [build-dependencies]
-lalrpop = "0.20"
+lalrpop = "0.22"
 
 [dependencies]
 nac3ast = { path = "../nac3ast" }
-lalrpop-util = "0.20"
+lalrpop-util = "0.22"
 log = "0.4"
 unic-emoji-char = "0.9"
 unic-ucd-ident  = "0.9"
-unicode_names2 = "1.2"
+unicode_names2 = "1.3"
 phf = { version = "0.11", features = ["macros"] }
 ahash = "0.8"
 

nac3parser/src/config_comment_helper.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,10 @@
-use crate::ast::Ident;
+use crate::{
-use crate::ast::Location;
+    ast::{Ident, Location},
-use crate::error::*;
+    error::*,
-use crate::token::Tok;
+    token::Tok,
+};
 use lalrpop_util::ParseError;
+
 use nac3ast::*;
 
 pub fn make_config_comment(

nac3parser/src/error.rs

@@ -1,13 +1,12 @@
 //! Define internal parse error types
 //! The goal is to provide a matching and a safe error API, maksing errors from LALR
-use lalrpop_util::ParseError as LalrpopError;
-
-use crate::ast::Location;
-use crate::token::Tok;
-
 use std::error::Error;
 use std::fmt;
 
+use lalrpop_util::ParseError as LalrpopError;
+
+use crate::{ast::Location, token::Tok};
+
 /// Represents an error during lexical scanning.
 #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct LexicalError {

nac3parser/src/fstring.rs

@@ -1,12 +1,11 @@
-use std::iter;
+use std::{iter, mem, str};
-use std::mem;
-use std::str;
-
-use crate::ast::{Constant, ConversionFlag, Expr, ExprKind, Location};
-use crate::error::{FStringError, FStringErrorType, ParseError};
-use crate::parser::parse_expression;
 
 use self::FStringErrorType::*;
+use crate::{
+    ast::{Constant, ConversionFlag, Expr, ExprKind, Location},
+    error::{FStringError, FStringErrorType, ParseError},
+    parser::parse_expression,
+};
 
 struct FStringParser<'a> {
     chars: iter::Peekable<str::Chars<'a>>,

nac3parser/src/function.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,11 @@
-use ahash::RandomState;
 use std::collections::HashSet;
 
-use crate::ast;
+use ahash::RandomState;
-use crate::error::{LexicalError, LexicalErrorType};
+
+use crate::{
+    ast,
+    error::{LexicalError, LexicalErrorType},
+};
 
 pub struct ArgumentList {
     pub args: Vec<ast::Expr>,

nac3parser/src/lexer.rs

@@ -1,17 +1,17 @@
 //! This module takes care of lexing python source text.
 //!
 //! This means source code is translated into separate tokens.
+use std::{char, cmp::Ordering, num::IntErrorKind, str::FromStr};
 
-pub use super::token::Tok;
-use crate::ast::{FileName, Location};
-use crate::error::{LexicalError, LexicalErrorType};
-use std::char;
-use std::cmp::Ordering;
-use std::num::IntErrorKind;
-use std::str::FromStr;
 use unic_emoji_char::is_emoji_presentation;
 use unic_ucd_ident::{is_xid_continue, is_xid_start};
 
+pub use super::token::Tok;
+use crate::{
+    ast::{FileName, Location},
+    error::{LexicalError, LexicalErrorType},
+};
+
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Debug, Default)]
 struct IndentationLevel {
     tabs: usize,

nac3parser/src/parser.rs

@@ -5,14 +5,16 @@
 //! parse a whole program, a single statement, or a single
 //! expression.
 
-use nac3ast::Location;
 use std::iter;
 
-use crate::ast::{self, FileName};
+use nac3ast::Location;
-use crate::error::ParseError;
+
-use crate::lexer;
 pub use crate::mode::Mode;
-use crate::python;
+use crate::{
+    ast::{self, FileName},
+    error::ParseError,
+    lexer, python,
+};
 
 /*
  * Parse python code.

nac3parser/src/token.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
 //! Different token definitions.
 //! Loosely based on token.h from CPython source:
-use crate::ast;
 use std::fmt::{self, Write};
 
+use crate::ast;
+
 /// Python source code can be tokenized in a sequence of these tokens.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub enum Tok {

nac3standalone/Cargo.toml

@@ -9,14 +9,8 @@ no-escape-analysis = ["nac3core/no-escape-analysis"]
 
 [dependencies]
 parking_lot = "0.12"
-nac3parser = { path = "../nac3parser" }
 nac3core = { path = "../nac3core" }
 
 [dependencies.clap]
 version = "4.5"
 features = ["derive"]
-
-[dependencies.inkwell]
-version = "0.4"
-default-features = false
-features = ["llvm14-0", "target-x86", "target-arm", "target-riscv", "no-libffi-linking"]

nac3standalone/demo/interpret_demo.py

@@ -179,6 +179,16 @@ def patch(module):
     module.np_identity = np.identity
     module.np_array = np.array
 
+    # NumPy NDArray view functions
+    module.np_broadcast_to = np.broadcast_to
+    module.np_transpose = np.transpose
+    module.np_reshape = np.reshape
+
+    # NumPy NDArray property getters
+    module.np_size = np.size
+    module.np_shape = np.shape
+    module.np_strides = lambda ndarray: ndarray.strides
+
     # NumPy Math functions
     module.np_isnan = np.isnan
     module.np_isinf = np.isinf
@@ -218,8 +228,6 @@ def patch(module):
     module.np_ldexp = np.ldexp
     module.np_hypot = np.hypot
     module.np_nextafter = np.nextafter
-    module.np_transpose = np.transpose
-    module.np_reshape = np.reshape
 
     # SciPy Math functions
     module.sp_spec_erf = special.erf

nac3standalone/demo/src/globals.py

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+@extern
+def output_int32(x: int32):
+    ...
+
+@extern
+def output_int64(x: int64):
+    ...
+
+X: int32 = 0
+Y = int64(1)
+
+def f():
+    global X, Y
+    X = 1
+    Y = int64(2)
+
+def run() -> int32:
+    global X, Y
+
+    output_int32(X)
+    output_int64(Y)
+    f()
+    output_int32(X)
+    output_int64(Y)
+
+    X = 0
+    Y = int64(0)
+    output_int32(X)
+    output_int64(Y)
+
+    return 0

nac3standalone/demo/src/ndarray.py

@@ -114,12 +114,22 @@ def test_ndarray_ones():
     n: ndarray[float, 1] = np_ones([1])
     output_ndarray_float_1(n)
 
+    dim = (1,)
+    n_tup: ndarray[float, 1] = np_ones(dim)
+    output_ndarray_float_1(n_tup)
+
 def test_ndarray_full():
     n_float: ndarray[float, 1] = np_full([1], 2.0)
     output_ndarray_float_1(n_float)
     n_i32: ndarray[int32, 1] = np_full([1], 2)
     output_ndarray_int32_1(n_i32)
 
+    dim = (1,)
+    n_float_tup: ndarray[float, 1] = np_full(dim, 2.0)
+    output_ndarray_float_1(n_float_tup)
+    n_i32_tup: ndarray[int32, 1] = np_full(dim, 2)
+    output_ndarray_int32_1(n_i32_tup)
+
 def test_ndarray_eye():
     n: ndarray[float, 2] = np_eye(2)
     output_ndarray_float_2(n)

nac3standalone/src/basic_symbol_resolver.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,14 @@
+use std::{
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
+    sync::Arc,
+};
+
+use parking_lot::{Mutex, RwLock};
+
 use nac3core::{
-    codegen::CodeGenContext,
+    codegen::{CodeGenContext, CodeGenerator},
+    inkwell::{module::Linkage, values::BasicValue},
+    nac3parser::ast::{self, StrRef},
     symbol_resolver::{SymbolResolver, SymbolValue, ValueEnum},
     toplevel::{DefinitionId, TopLevelDef},
     typecheck::{
@@ -7,10 +16,6 @@ use nac3core::{
         typedef::{Type, Unifier},
     },
 };
-use nac3parser::ast::{self, StrRef};
-use parking_lot::{Mutex, RwLock};
-use std::collections::HashSet;
-use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
 
 pub struct ResolverInternal {
     pub id_to_type: Mutex<HashMap<StrRef, Type>>,
@@ -45,20 +50,51 @@ impl SymbolResolver for Resolver {
 
     fn get_symbol_type(
         &self,
-        _: &mut Unifier,
+        unifier: &mut Unifier,
         _: &[Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>],
-        _: &PrimitiveStore,
+        primitives: &PrimitiveStore,
         str: StrRef,
     ) -> Result<Type, String> {
-        self.0.id_to_type.lock().get(&str).copied().ok_or(format!("cannot get type of {str}"))
+        self.0
+            .id_to_type
+            .lock()
+            .get(&str)
+            .copied()
+            .or_else(|| {
+                self.0
+                    .module_globals
+                    .lock()
+                    .get(&str)
+                    .cloned()
+                    .map(|v| v.get_type(primitives, unifier))
+            })
+            .ok_or(format!("cannot get type of {str}"))
     }
 
     fn get_symbol_value<'ctx>(
         &self,
-        _: StrRef,
+        str: StrRef,
-        _: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        ctx: &mut CodeGenContext<'ctx, '_>,
+        generator: &mut dyn CodeGenerator,
     ) -> Option<ValueEnum<'ctx>> {
-        unimplemented!()
+        self.0.module_globals.lock().get(&str).cloned().map(|v| {
+            ctx.module
+                .get_global(&str.to_string())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                    let ty = v.get_type(&ctx.primitives, &mut ctx.unifier);
+
+                    let init_val = ctx.gen_symbol_val(generator, &v, ty);
+                    let llvm_ty = init_val.get_type();
+
+                    let global = ctx.module.add_global(llvm_ty, None, &str.to_string());
+                    global.set_linkage(Linkage::LinkOnceAny);
+                    global.set_initializer(&init_val);
+
+                    global
+                })
+                .as_basic_value_enum()
+                .into()
+        })
     }
 
     fn get_identifier_def(&self, id: StrRef) -> Result<DefinitionId, HashSet<String>> {

nac3standalone/src/main.rs

@@ -8,17 +8,30 @@
 #![warn(clippy::pedantic)]
 #![allow(clippy::too_many_lines, clippy::wildcard_imports)]
 
-use clap::Parser;
+use std::{
-use inkwell::context::Context;
+    collections::{HashMap, HashSet},
-use inkwell::{
+    fs,
-    memory_buffer::MemoryBuffer, passes::PassBuilderOptions, support::is_multithreaded, targets::*,
+    num::NonZeroUsize,
-    OptimizationLevel,
+    path::Path,
+    sync::Arc,
 };
+
+use clap::Parser;
+use parking_lot::{Mutex, RwLock};
+
 use nac3core::{
     codegen::{
         concrete_type::ConcreteTypeStore, irrt::load_irrt, CodeGenLLVMOptions,
         CodeGenTargetMachineOptions, CodeGenTask, DefaultCodeGenerator, WithCall, WorkerRegistry,
     },
+    inkwell::{
+        memory_buffer::MemoryBuffer, module::Linkage, passes::PassBuilderOptions,
+        support::is_multithreaded, targets::*, OptimizationLevel,
+    },
+    nac3parser::{
+        ast::{Constant, Expr, ExprKind, StmtKind, StrRef},
+        parser,
+    },
     symbol_resolver::SymbolResolver,
     toplevel::{
         composer::{ComposerConfig, TopLevelComposer},
@@ -31,14 +44,6 @@ use nac3core::{
         typedef::{FunSignature, Type, Unifier, VarMap},
     },
 };
-use nac3parser::{
-    ast::{Constant, Expr, ExprKind, StmtKind, StrRef},
-    parser,
-};
-use parking_lot::{Mutex, RwLock};
-use std::collections::HashSet;
-use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
-use std::{collections::HashMap, fs, path::Path, sync::Arc};
 
 mod basic_symbol_resolver;
 use basic_symbol_resolver::*;
@@ -169,46 +174,49 @@ fn handle_typevar_definition(
 fn handle_assignment_pattern(
     targets: &[Expr],
     value: &Expr,
-    resolver: &(dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync),
+    resolver: Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>,
     internal_resolver: &ResolverInternal,
-    def_list: &[Arc<RwLock<TopLevelDef>>],
+    composer: &mut TopLevelComposer,
-    unifier: &mut Unifier,
-    primitives: &PrimitiveStore,
 ) -> Result<(), String> {
     if targets.len() == 1 {
-        match &targets[0].node {
+        let target = &targets[0];
+
+        match &target.node {
             ExprKind::Name { id, .. } => {
+                let def_list = composer.extract_def_list();
+                let unifier = &mut composer.unifier;
+                let primitives = &composer.primitives_ty;
+
                 if let Ok(var) =
-                    handle_typevar_definition(value, resolver, def_list, unifier, primitives)
+                    handle_typevar_definition(value, &*resolver, &def_list, unifier, primitives)
                 {
                     internal_resolver.add_id_type(*id, var);
                     Ok(())
-                } else if let Ok(val) = parse_parameter_default_value(value, resolver) {
+                } else if let Ok(val) = parse_parameter_default_value(value, &*resolver) {
                     internal_resolver.add_module_global(*id, val);
+                    let (name, def_id, _) = composer
+                        .register_top_level_var(
+                            *id,
+                            None,
+                            Some(resolver.clone()),
+                            "__main__",
+                            target.location,
+                        )
+                        .unwrap();
+                    internal_resolver.add_id_def(name, def_id);
                     Ok(())
                 } else {
                     Err(format!("fails to evaluate this expression `{:?}` as a constant or generic parameter at {}",
-                        targets[0].node,
+                        target.node,
-                        targets[0].location,
+                        target.location,
                     ))
                 }
             }
             ExprKind::List { elts, .. } | ExprKind::Tuple { elts, .. } => {
-                handle_assignment_pattern(
+                handle_assignment_pattern(elts, value, resolver, internal_resolver, composer)?;
-                    elts,
-                    value,
-                    resolver,
-                    internal_resolver,
-                    def_list,
-                    unifier,
-                    primitives,
-                )?;
                 Ok(())
             }
-            _ => Err(format!(
+            _ => Err(format!("assignment to {target:?} is not supported at {}", target.location)),
-                "assignment to {:?} is not supported at {}",
-                targets[0], targets[0].location
-            )),
         }
     } else {
         match &value.node {
@@ -218,11 +226,9 @@ fn handle_assignment_pattern(
                         handle_assignment_pattern(
                             std::slice::from_ref(tar),
                             val,
-                            resolver,
+                            resolver.clone(),
                             internal_resolver,
-                            def_list,
+                            composer,
-                            unifier,
-                            primitives,
                         )?;
                     }
                     Ok(())
@@ -240,6 +246,39 @@ fn handle_assignment_pattern(
     }
 }
 
+fn handle_global_var(
+    target: &Expr,
+    value: Option<&Expr>,
+    resolver: &Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>,
+    internal_resolver: &ResolverInternal,
+    composer: &mut TopLevelComposer,
+) -> Result<(), String> {
+    let ExprKind::Name { id, .. } = target.node else {
+        return Err(format!(
+            "global variable declaration must be an identifier (at {})",
+            target.location,
+        ));
+    };
+
+    let Some(value) = value else {
+        return Err(format!("global variable `{id}` must be initialized in its definition"));
+    };
+
+    if let Ok(val) = parse_parameter_default_value(value, &**resolver) {
+        internal_resolver.add_module_global(id, val);
+        let (name, def_id, _) = composer
+            .register_top_level_var(id, None, Some(resolver.clone()), "__main__", target.location)
+            .unwrap();
+        internal_resolver.add_id_def(name, def_id);
+        Ok(())
+    } else {
+        Err(format!(
+            "failed to evaluate this expression `{:?}` as a constant at {}",
+            target.node, target.location,
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
 fn main() {
     let cli = CommandLineArgs::parse();
     let CommandLineArgs { file_name, threads, opt_level, emit_llvm, triple, mcpu, target_features } =
@@ -280,22 +319,19 @@ fn main() {
         reloc_mode: RelocMode::PIC,
         ..host_target_machine
     };
-
+    let target_machine = target_machine_options
-    let size_t = Context::create()
-        .ptr_sized_int_type(
-            &target_machine_options
         .create_target_machine(opt_level)
-                .map(|tm| tm.get_target_data())
+        .expect("couldn't create target machine");
-                .unwrap(),
+
-            None,
+    let context = nac3core::inkwell::context::Context::create();
-        )
+
-        .get_bit_width();
+    let size_t =
+        context.ptr_sized_int_type(&target_machine.get_target_data(), None).get_bit_width();
 
     let program = match fs::read_to_string(file_name.clone()) {
         Ok(program) => program,
         Err(err) => {
-            println!("Cannot open input file: {err}");
+            panic!("Cannot open input file: {err}");
-            return;
         }
     };
 
@@ -313,8 +349,6 @@ fn main() {
     let resolver =
         Arc::new(Resolver(internal_resolver.clone())) as Arc<dyn SymbolResolver + Send + Sync>;
 
-    let context = inkwell::context::Context::create();
-
     // Process IRRT
     let irrt = load_irrt(&context, resolver.as_ref());
     if emit_llvm {
@@ -327,22 +361,29 @@ fn main() {
     for stmt in parser_result {
         match &stmt.node {
             StmtKind::Assign { targets, value, .. } => {
-                let def_list = composer.extract_def_list();
-                let unifier = &mut composer.unifier;
-                let primitives = &composer.primitives_ty;
                 if let Err(err) = handle_assignment_pattern(
                     targets,
                     value,
-                    resolver.as_ref(),
+                    resolver.clone(),
                     internal_resolver.as_ref(),
-                    &def_list,
+                    &mut composer,
-                    unifier,
-                    primitives,
                 ) {
-                    eprintln!("{err}");
+                    panic!("{err}");
-                    return;
                 }
             }
+
+            StmtKind::AnnAssign { target, value, .. } => {
+                if let Err(err) = handle_global_var(
+                    target,
+                    value.as_ref().map(Box::as_ref),
+                    &resolver,
+                    internal_resolver.as_ref(),
+                    &mut composer,
+                ) {
+                    panic!("{err}");
+                }
+            }
+
             // allow (and ignore) "from __future__ import annotations"
             StmtKind::ImportFrom { module, names, .. }
                 if module == &Some("__future__".into())
@@ -453,17 +494,12 @@ fn main() {
     let mut function_iter = main.get_first_function();
     while let Some(func) = function_iter {
         if func.count_basic_blocks() > 0 && func.get_name().to_str().unwrap() != "run" {
-            func.set_linkage(inkwell::module::Linkage::Private);
+            func.set_linkage(Linkage::Private);
         }
         function_iter = func.get_next_function();
     }
 
     // Optimize `main`
-    let target_machine = llvm_options
-        .target
-        .create_target_machine(llvm_options.opt_level)
-        .expect("couldn't create target machine");
-
     let pass_options = PassBuilderOptions::create();
     pass_options.set_merge_functions(true);
     let passes = format!("default<O{}>", opt_level as u32);

nix/windows/PKGBUILD

@@ -21,6 +21,6 @@ build() {
 }
 
 package() {
-  mkdir -p $pkgdir/clang64/lib/python3.11/site-packages
+  mkdir -p $pkgdir/clang64/lib/python3.12/site-packages
-  cp ${srcdir}/nac3artiq.pyd $pkgdir/clang64/lib/python3.11/site-packages
+  cp ${srcdir}/nac3artiq.pyd $pkgdir/clang64/lib/python3.12/site-packages
 }

nix/windows/default.nix

@@ -21,10 +21,10 @@ let
     text =
       ''
       implementation=CPython
-      version=3.11
+      version=3.12
       shared=true
       abi3=false
-      lib_name=python3.11
+      lib_name=python3.12
       lib_dir=${msys2-env}/clang64/lib
       pointer_width=64
       build_flags=WITH_THREAD

nix/windows/make_msys2_packages.sh

@@ -6,11 +6,11 @@ cd $(dirname $0)
 MSYS2DIR=`pwd`/msys2
 mkdir -p $MSYS2DIR/var/lib/pacman $MSYS2DIR/msys/etc
 
-curl -L https://mirror.msys2.org/msys/x86_64/pacman-mirrors-20220205-1-any.pkg.tar.zst | tar xvf - -C $MSYS2DIR --zstd
+curl -L https://repo.msys2.org/msys/x86_64/pacman-mirrors-20240523-1-any.pkg.tar.zst | tar xvf - -C $MSYS2DIR --zstd
 curl -L https://raw.githubusercontent.com/msys2/MSYS2-packages/master/pacman/pacman.conf | sed "s|SigLevel    = Required|SigLevel    = Never|g" | sed "s|/etc/pacman.d|$MSYS2DIR/etc/pacman.d|g" > $MSYS2DIR/etc/pacman.conf
 
 fakeroot pacman --root $MSYS2DIR --config $MSYS2DIR/etc/pacman.conf -Syy
-pacman --root $MSYS2DIR --config $MSYS2DIR/etc/pacman.conf --cachedir $MSYS2DIR/msys/cache -Sp mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-rust mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-cmake mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-ninja mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python3.11 mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-numpy mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-setuptools > $MSYS2DIR/packages.txt
+pacman --root $MSYS2DIR --config $MSYS2DIR/etc/pacman.conf --cachedir $MSYS2DIR/msys/cache -Sp mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-rust mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-cmake mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-ninja mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-numpy mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-setuptools > $MSYS2DIR/packages.txt
 
 echo "{ pkgs } : [" > msys2_packages.nix
 while read package; do

nix/windows/msys2_packages.nix

@@ -1,15 +1,15 @@
 { pkgs } : [
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libunwind-18.1.8-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libunwind-18.1.8-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "1v8zkfcbf1ga2ndpd1j0dwv5s1rassxs2b5pjhcsmqwjcvczba1m";
+  sha256 = "0f9m76dx40iy794nfks0360gvjhdg6yngb2lyhwp4xd76rn5081m";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libunwind-18.1.8-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libunwind-18.1.8-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libc++-18.1.8-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libc++-18.1.8-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "0mfd8wrmgx12j5gf354j7pk1l3lg9ykxvq75xdk3jipsr6hbn846";
+  sha256 = "17savj9wys9my2ji7vyba7wwqkvzdjwnkb3k4858wxrjbzbfa6lk";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libc++-18.1.8-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libc++-18.1.8-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -43,9 +43,9 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libxml2-2.12.8-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libxml2-2.12.9-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "1imipb0dz4w6x4n9arn22imyzzcwdlf2cqxvn7irqq7w9by6fy0b";
+  sha256 = "0cjz2vj9yz6k5xj601cp0yk631rrr0z94ciamwqrvclb0yhakf25";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libxml2-2.12.8-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libxml2-2.12.9-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -79,15 +79,15 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-headers-git-12.0.0.r81.g90abf784a-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-headers-git-12.0.0.r250.gc6bf4bdf6-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "1h3cdcajz29iq7vja908kkijz1vb9xn0f7w1lw1ima0q0zhinv4q";
+  sha256 = "0163jzjlvq7inpafy3h48pkwag3ysk6x56xm84yfcz5q52fnfzq5";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-headers-git-12.0.0.r81.g90abf784a-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-headers-git-12.0.0.r250.gc6bf4bdf6-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-crt-git-12.0.0.r81.g90abf784a-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-crt-git-12.0.0.r250.gc6bf4bdf6-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "15kamyi3b0j6f5zxin4i2jgzjc7lzvwl4z5cz3dx0i8hg91aq0n7";
+  sha256 = "00cn1mi29mfys7qy4hvgnjd0smqvnkdn3ibnrr6a3wy1h2vaykgq";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-crt-git-12.0.0.r81.g90abf784a-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-crt-git-12.0.0.r250.gc6bf4bdf6-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -97,15 +97,15 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libwinpthread-git-12.0.0.r81.g90abf784a-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libwinpthread-git-12.0.0.r250.gc6bf4bdf6-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "0qdvgs1rmjjhn9klf9kpw7l0ydz36rr5fasn4q9gpby2lgl11bkb";
+  sha256 = "1zkzqqd31xpkv817wja3qssjjx891bsdxw07037hv2sk0qr4ffn9";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libwinpthread-git-12.0.0.r81.g90abf784a-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-libwinpthread-git-12.0.0.r250.gc6bf4bdf6-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-winpthreads-git-12.0.0.r81.g90abf784a-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-winpthreads-git-12.0.0.r250.gc6bf4bdf6-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "0rh2mn078cifcmr4as4k57jxjln5lbnsmpx47h9d0s5d2i8sf2rc";
+  sha256 = "02ynia88ad3l03r08nyldmnajwqkyxcjd191lyamkbj4d6zck323";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-winpthreads-git-12.0.0.r81.g90abf784a-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-winpthreads-git-12.0.0.r250.gc6bf4bdf6-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -115,15 +115,15 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-c-ares-1.29.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-c-ares-1.33.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "01xg1h1a8kda0kq2921w25ybvm1ms7lfdzday0hv93f3myq7briq";
+  sha256 = "14r6jjsvfbapbkv2zqp2yglva4vz4srzkgk7f186ri3kcafjspgq";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-c-ares-1.29.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-c-ares-1.33.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-brotli-1.1.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-brotli-1.1.0-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "113mha41q53cx0hw13cq1xdf7zbsd58sh8cl1cd7xzg1q69n60w2";
+  sha256 = "1q01lz9lcyrjmkhv9rddgjazmk7warlcmwhc4qkq9y6h0yfsb71n";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-brotli-1.1.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-brotli-1.1.0-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -163,9 +163,9 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-openssl-3.3.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-openssl-3.3.2-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "0ywhwm4kw3qjzv0872qwabnsq2rzbmqjb9m69q3fykjl0m9gigsa";
+  sha256 = "1djgpcz447yvhdy1yq5wh8l5d0821izxklx9afyszbw0pbr7f24y";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-openssl-3.3.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-openssl-3.3.2-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -175,39 +175,39 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-nghttp2-1.61.0-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-nghttp2-1.63.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "07bkk98126gy4k6lb9rrqqnzjfz9j2rsr5dzr2djmzdkw0h4dr95";
+  sha256 = "0lfqrlmapsc7ilxjmhr7hxi578vclqlhpqimbvzq0c70c0iwk864";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-nghttp2-1.61.0-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-nghttp2-1.63.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-nghttp3-1.4.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-nghttp3-1.5.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "007w2252nzn274j4wjc1vf56xyzzh5vg3blj1hil7mlmffgvc923";
+  sha256 = "1ljl9kdasf91bxkqcmbbjchp5g00ahv8jn2zab38899z6j3x43nz";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-nghttp3-1.4.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-nghttp3-1.5.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-curl-8.8.0-10-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-curl-8.9.1-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "024z5b1achkf448gxqy1i3gcw371x54kfl6igv08b5wb3rrw35a4";
+  sha256 = "1zr6kgqp9i4qqrfckh3kfmz4x1cwv4xis9sfqsx7xji88priax64";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-curl-8.8.0-10-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-curl-8.9.1-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-rust-1.79.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-rust-1.80.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "0i7s88hj8m4920xifkj7i4b4sq8cqq7p5cypp3jqx3dc44pwm19a";
+  sha256 = "1dm4vlrfi9m6xl09zpn0yjr7qcjjr4x738z1rjfwysfnc0awq4x8";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-rust-1.79.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-rust-1.80.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-pkgconf-1~2.2.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-cppdap-1.65-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "1y44ijg3y8p80f1yn9972nshrnyrd06a9sh984ajhxg8bi8s5xyl";
+  sha256 = "0phhwkcqp30dsyj5vr6w99sgm1jfm5rzg0w5x5mv9md4x7lm9lmh";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-pkgconf-12.2.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-cppdap-1.65-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-expat-2.6.2-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-expat-2.6.3-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "0kj1vzjh3qh7d2g47avlgk7a6j4nc62111hy1m63jwq0alc01k38";
+  sha256 = "19xfl1q78q1k8j0lr5aspcf668pmfg01fgib73zq7ff7y5y5fcyi";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-expat-2.6.2-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-expat-2.6.3-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -229,9 +229,9 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-lz4-1.9.4-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-lz4-1.10.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "0nn7cy25j53q5ckkx4n4f77w00xdwwf5wjswm374shvvs58nlln0";
+  sha256 = "0kznnw9z9zqxkmn8qbypm2rpsfaapbgls1ks3zzpfnfjz9cpw8py";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-lz4-1.9.4-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-lz4-1.10.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -264,6 +264,12 @@
   name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-ninja-1.12.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
+(pkgs.fetchurl {
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-pkgconf-1~2.3.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  sha256 = "15i7x6akkgs7aa7aa804k93p2iipnvygsy7z8hsafskka3h150fa";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-pkgconf-12.3.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+})
+
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
   url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-rhash-1.4.4-3-any.pkg.tar.zst";
   sha256 = "1ysbxirpfr0yf7pvyps75lnwc897w2a2kcid3nb4j6ilw6n64jmc";
@@ -271,9 +277,9 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-cmake-3.30.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-cmake-3.30.3-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "07b7132hwhiqrf0l2lgw3g4zw9i2lln3kqc9kg2qijvkapbkmwqb";
+  sha256 = "0fjwf6xxzli6rcsbzr1razldmm538ibkyf5kw132lpaz5wma9bj8";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-cmake-3.30.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-cmake-3.30.3-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -295,9 +301,9 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-readline-8.2.010-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-readline-8.2.013-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "1s47pd5iz8y3hspsxn4pnp0v3m05ccia40v5nfvx0rmwgvcaz82v";
+  sha256 = "0pv1ypqfgm4mimzr0amq9anr1ysqmzrwv6gfk7rrlzhihadknsvr";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-readline-8.2.010-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-readline-8.2.013-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -307,9 +313,9 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-sqlite3-3.46.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-sqlite3-3.46.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "0q676i2z5nr4c71jnd4z5qz9xa1xryl0cpi84w74yvd0p4qiz7y2";
+  sha256 = "1axplxyjnaz411qzjjqwbj55fbrh4akq3plm2p1sx64jp844xpyq";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-sqlite3-3.46.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-sqlite3-3.46.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
@@ -324,6 +330,12 @@
   name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-tzdata-2024a-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
+(pkgs.fetchurl {
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python3.12-3.12.1-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  sha256 = "0wmd39wl9z237w093a7c6hl5pclca9yvwxn0kiw6i2njk3sjv51a";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python3.12-3.12.1-2-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+})
+
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
   url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-3.11.9-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
   sha256 = "0ah1idjqxg7jc07a1gz9z766rjjd0f0c6ri4hpcsimsrbj1zjd3c";
@@ -337,20 +349,20 @@
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-openblas-0.3.27-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-openblas-0.3.28-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "06ygz1wa488wqvmxbn74b0fyan4wf3lb6kbwfampgikd1gijww2k";
+  sha256 = "1pskcqc1lg9p8m8rk7bw3mz7mn7vw5fpl7zxa23bhjn02p5b79qq";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-openblas-0.3.27-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-openblas-0.3.28-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-numpy-1.26.4-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-numpy-2.0.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "00h0ap954cjwlsc3p01fjwy7s3nlzs90v0kmnrzxm0rljmvn4jkf";
+  sha256 = "0ks6q8v58h4wmr2pzsjl2xm4f63g0psvfm0jwlz24mqfxp8gqfcc";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-numpy-1.26.4-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-numpy-2.0.1-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 
 (pkgs.fetchurl {
-  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-setuptools-70.2.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  url = "https://mirror.msys2.org/mingw/clang64/mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-setuptools-74.0.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
-  sha256 = "1q4r9bg2hn3jmshvq81xm5zvy9wn35yf0z2ayksrkwph1zzdkvkm";
+  sha256 = "0xc95z5jzzjf5lw35bs4yn5rlwkrkmrh78yi5rranqpz5nn0wsa0";
-  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-setuptools-70.2.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
+  name = "mingw-w64-clang-x86_64-python-setuptools-74.0.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst";
 })
 ]